HAND-BOOK 

OF  THE 

LlCK     OBSERVATORY    \ 


UC-NRLF 


SB    27fi    IhS 


THE  ROBERT   E.  COWAN  COLLECTION  • 

„         I'RKSKNTKI)    TO    TliK 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 

r.v 

C.  P.  HUNTINGTON 

dUNE,   1897. 

Recession  No.<6/^$7'         Class  No, 


m 


EDWARD    S.   HOLDEN,   LL.  D. 
(Director   of   the    Lick    Observatory) 


THE  GREAT  TELESCOPE 

From  the  original  design  of  WARNER  &  SWASEY,  makers  of  the  mounting 

The  tube  is  57  feet  long  and  is  4  feet  in  diameter  at  the  centre.    The 

objective  by  ALVAN  CLARK  &  SONS,  is  36  inches  in  diameter. 

The  highest  magnifying  power  is  3360  diameter; 

the  lowest  180  diameter. 


HAND-BOOK 


OF   THE 


LICK  OBSERVATORY 


OF   THE 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA, 


BY 

EDWARD  S.   HOLDEN,   LL.D., 

Director  of  the  Observatory. 


SAN  FRANCISCO: 
THE  BANCROFT  COMPANY 


Copyright  1888,  by  EDWARD  S.  HOLDEN 


W.  &  J.  Sio^ne  &  fo.. 

oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo 
--  -  —  —  Wholesale  and  Retail  Dealers  in  -  —  •  -- 


carpet  Department  is  replete  with  the  latest  and 

choicest  styles  in  Axminsters,  Wiltons,  Moquettes, 

Velvets,  Body  Brussels,  Tapestries,  Ingrains, 

Oil  Cloths,  Linoleums,  Art  Squares, 

Foreign  and  Domestic  Rugs,  &c. 

In  our  upholstery  Department  we  have  constantly  on 

hand   an  extensive  assortment  of  new  designs   in 

Portieres,  Silk  and  Lace  Curtains,  Rich  Fur- 

niture Coverings,  Curtain  Poles,  &c.  ,  &c. 

DRAPERIES,  PORTIERES,  SASH  CURTAINS,  &c.  made  up,  and 
original  designs  furnished. 

p  o  ooo  ooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo  o  o 

641,  ©43,  64§  ^  847  fflapket 

SAN  FRANCISCO 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

I.  Information  for  Intending  Visitors        ...         5 

II.  Sketch  of  the  Life  of  JAMES  LICK    .        .        .        .11 

III.  A  Visit  to  Mount  Hamilton 17 

IV.  History  of  the  Lick  Observatory       .        .        .        .24 
V.    Description  of  the  Buildings 33 

VI.  Description  of  the  Instruments         .        .        .        .41 

VII.  The  Work  of  an  Observatory        ....       59 

VIII.    Telescopes    . 67 

IX.  Poem :  To  the  Unmounted  Lens,  by  A.  V.  G.        .       75 

X.    Astronomical  Photography 81 

XI.    Clocks  and  Time  Keeping 97 

XII.  The  Principal  Observatories  of  the  World      .        .  105 
Index       .                                                                     127 


of   the  University  of  California. 


HON.  R.  W.  WATERMAN, 
HON.  S.  M.  WHITE, 
HON.  W.  H.  JORDAN, 
HON.  IRA  G.  HOITT, 
HON.  L.  U.  SHIPPEE, 
HON.  P.  B.  CORNWALL, 
HON.  HORACE  DAVIS, 


Governor  of  California ; 
Lieutenant-Governor ; 
Speaker  of  the  Assembly, 
Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction ; 
President  State  Agricultural  Society ; 
President  Mechanics1  Institute ; 
President  of  the   University ; 


REV.  HORATIO  STEBBINS,  D.D  ; 
HON.  J.  WEST  MARTIN; 
HON.  A.  S.  HALLIDIE; 
HON.  JOHN  L.  BEARD  ; 
HON.  T.  GUY  PHELPS  ; 
HON.  GEORGE  T.  MAR  YE,  LL.B ; 
HON.  GEO.  J.  AINSWORTH,  Ph.B ; 
HON.  ALBERT  MILLER  ; 


HON.  JOHN  S.  HAGER,  LL.D; 
HON.  CHARLES  F.  CROCKER; 
HON.  WILLIAM  T.  WALLAC  •<; ; 
HON.   JAMES   F.  HOUGHTON  ; 
HON.  I.  W.  HELLMAN  ; 
HON.  ARTHUR  RODGERS,  A.B. ; 
HON.  D.  M.  DELMAS,  A.  M.; 
HON.  COLUMBUS  BARTLETT  ; 


J.  H.  C.  BONTE,  D.D.,  Secretary. 


organization  of  the  Liiek  Observatory. 


HON.  HORACE  DAVIS President  of  the  University; 

EDWARD  S.  HOLDSN,  LL.D Director  and  Astronomer; 

SHERBURNE  W.  BURNHAM,  A.  M Astronomer; 

JOHN  M.  SCHAEBERLE,  C.  E Astronomer; 

JAMES  E.  KEELER,  A.  B Astronomer ; 

EDWARD  E.  BARNARD Astronomer; 

CHARLES  B.  HILL...^!S$'£  Astronomer,  Secretary,  and  Librarian : 


JOHN  MCDONALD Machinist; 

CHARLES  HARKORT Janitor; 

CHRIS.  McGuiRE Laborer. 

(4) 


I.     INFORMATION  FOR  INTENDING 
VISITORS. 


Hotels  in  San  Jose :  It  may  be  necessary  for  visitors  to  pass  the 
night  in  Sail  Jose.  Omnibuses  from  each  hotel  meet  all  railway 
trains.  Good  accommodations  may  be  had  at  the 

St.  James'  Hotel :     Rooms  and  board  at  $2  to  $2.50  per  day. 

Stage  Lines:  The  stages  of  the  Mount  Hamilton  Stage  Co., 
are  large,  roomy  and  very  comfortable,  open  on  the  sides  so  that  an. 
extensive  view  of  the  surrounding  country  can  be  had  at  all  times; 
the  drivers  are  courteous,  and  instructed  to  furnish  patrons  with 
information  regarding  points  of  interest;  frequent  change  of  horses 
will  take  visitors  through  in  quick  time.  Procure  your  seats  of  the 
Agent  at  office  of  Wells,  Fargo  &  Co. ,  San  Jose,  the  night  before. 
Stages  start  out  at  7:30  A.  M.  You  will  find  the  mountain  drive 
itself,  in  the  elegant  turnouts  of  the  Mount  Hamilton  Stage  Co., 
well  worth  the  visit  to  the  Summit;  it  is  old  time  California 
Staging  on  an  improved  plan,  and  this  drive  is  destined  to  be 
a  feature  of  itself  to  tourists  visiting  the  observatory,  as  there  are  no 
conveniences  for  a  change  of  horses  on  the  route,  and  the  distance 
so  great,  we  would  advise  tourists  to  avoid  private  conveyances. 

Telephone  Messages:     The  private  telephone  line  of  the  obser- 
vatory is  connected  with  the  Central  Office  in  San  Jose  and  there  are 
several  stations  along  the  road  to  Mt.  Hamilton  (which  the  driver 
will  know). 
15) 


INFORMATION   FOR   INTENDING   VISITORS. 

In  any  case  of  doubt  as  to  whether  the  Observatory  is  open  to 
visitors  at  a  particular  time,  etc.,  it  is  better  to  telephone  to 
Mt.  Hamilton  and  receive  an  answer.  The  Observatory  rules  are 
very  liberal  in  regard  to  the  reception  of  visitors  and  for  that  very 
reason  they  are  rigidly  adhered  to,  in  order  that  equal  rights  may 
be  secured  to  each  person,  where  all  are  equally  interested. 

Photographs  :  Of  the  Observatory  and  of  the  scenery  along  the 
road  are  on  sale  at  LORYEA  &  MACATJLEY'S,  W.  D.  ALLISON'S,  and 
other  places  in  San  Jose,  and  at  TABER'S,  8  Montgomery  street, 
H.  A.  MATHEWS',  331  Montgomery  street,  and  other  places  in  San 
Francisco. 

Dress  :  The  summer  days  are  apt  to  be  hot  and  dusty,  and  a 
long  linen  duster  is  almost  essential.  Tie  a  handkerchief  around 
your  neck  if  there  is  much  dust.  In  the  early  mornings  of  spring 
and  fall  a  light  overcoat  is  required. 

Shooting  on  the  Reservation  :  The  Regents  of  the  University 
have  caused  the  following  to  be  posted : 


"This  is  a  reservation  for  Observatory  uses  only.  No 
unauthorized  hunting  or  shooting  is  permitted.  No  notices 
or  advertisements  are  to  be  posted  on  the  Reservation, 
or  painted  on  the  rocks  without  authority.  Horses,  cattle 
and  sheep  must  not  be  allowed  to  run  at  large. 

By  order  of  the  Committee  of  the  Board  of  Regents  of 
the  University  of  California  on  Grounds  and  Buildings. 

J.  WEST  MARTIN,  Chairman." 

HOURS    FOR   VISITORS    TO    THE  LICK    OBSERVATORY. 

The  Board  of  Regents  of  the  University  of  California  has  estab- 
lished the  following  regulations,  which  have  been  conspicuously 
posted  in  various  places.  The  orders  of  the  Board  will  be  strictly 
obeyed : 

"VISITORS  will  be  received  at  the  Lick  Observatory  during  office 
hours,  whenever  any  of  the  astronomers  are  present. 

Regular  nights  in  each  month,  not  exceeding  one  per  week,  shall 
be  set  apart  for  the  reception  of  visitors,  except  during  inclement 
weather,  and  visitors  will  be  received  on  these  nights  between  cer- 
tain hours  and  at  no  other  times. " 

By  order  of  the  BOARD  OF  REGENTS, 

Until  further  notice,  the  Observatory  will  be  open  to  visitors 
daily  except  Sunday,  from  10  A.  M.  to  4  P.  M.,  and  on  Saturday 
nights  from  7  to  10  P.  M.  There  are  no  hotel  accommodations  on  the 
summit. 

The  following  circular  has  also  been  widely  distributed  and  will 
be  mailed  to  any  person  applying  for  it. 


INFORMATION  FOR  INTENDING  VISITORS.  7 

[CIRCULAR.] 

Hours  for  Visitors  to  the  Lick  Observatory  :  The  Observatory 
Buildings  will  be  open  to  visitors  during  office  hours,  every  day  in 
the  year.  Upon  their  arrival,  visitors  will  please  go  at  once  to  the 
Visitors'  Room  and  register  their  names. 

An  hour  or  so  can  be  profitably  occupied  in  viewing  the  different 
instruments,  and  the  rest  of  the  stay  can  be  well  spent  in  walks  to 
the  various  reservoirs,  from  which  magnificent  views  of  the  sur- 
rounding country  can  be  had.  At  least  an  hour  and  a  half  of  day- 
light should  be  allowed  for  the  drive  from  the  Summit  to  Smith 
Creek.  There  are  no  hotel  accommodations  at  the  Summit. 

ADMISSION  OF  VISITORS  AT  NIGHT. 

For  the  present,  visitors  will  be  received  at  the  Observatory  to 
look  through  the  great  telescope  every  Saturday  night,  between  the 
hours  of  7  and  10,  and  at  these  times  only. 

Whenever  the  work  of  the  Observatory  will  allow,  other  tele- 
scopes will  also  be  put  at  the  disposition  of  visitors  on  Saturdays  be- 
tween the  same  hours  (only). 

At  10  P.  M.  the  Observatory  will  be  closed  to  visitors,  who  should 
provide  their  own  conveyance  to  Smith  Creek,  as  there  is  no  way  of 
lodging  them  on  the  mountain. 

It  is  expected  by  setting  apart  these  times  for  visitors  (which 
allow  freer  access  to  the  Lick  Observatory  than  is  allowed  to  any 
other  observatory  in  the  world)  that  all  interested  may  be  able  to 
arrange  their  visits  in  conformity  to  them;  and  that  the  remain- 
ing hours  of  the  week  will  be  kept  entirely  uninterrupted,  in  order 
that  the  Astronomers  may  do  the  work  upon  which  the  reputation 
and  the  good  name  of  the  Observatory  entirely  depends. 

VISITORS'  NIGHT. 

I  may  be  allowed  to  quote  here  a  paragraph  from  a  public 
announcement  in  regard  to  our  visitors'  nights,  which  I  made  in 
1886.  It  will  serve  to  indicate  how  these  evenings  are  to  be  spent. 

"We  shall  regularly  appoint  in  each  one  of  the  favorable  summer 
months  certain  evenings  for  the  reception  of  visitors  to  look  through 
the  telescopes.  We  shall  usually  have  three  telescopes  available  for 
this  purpose — a  6-inch,  a  12-inch  and  the  36-inch  equatorial.  These 
will  each  be  under  the  charge  of  an  astronomer,  and  each  will  be 
kept  directed  at  a  different  object  in  the  sky.  The  visitor  will  be 
shown  through  the  various  buildings,  and  will  see  the  various  in- 
struments and  will  hear  their  various  uses  described.  With  these 
three  telescopes  he  can  see  three  different  and  interesting  objects, 
as  the  moon,  a  binary  star,  a  nebula,  and  in  a  short  time  he  can 
gain  some  individual  and  real  knowledge  concerning  the  heavenly 
bodies,  of  which  he  has  read  and  studied,  and  obtain  some  insight 
that  will  be  new  to  him. 


8  INFORMATION   FOR   INTENDING   VISITORS. 

The.  visitors'  nights  will  be  strictly  devoted  to  these  ends:  the 
whole  force  of  the  observatory  will  be  employed  to  making  them 
useful,  interesting  and  pleasant  to  our  guests.  Not  only  will  visitors 
be  welcome  on  these  special  nights,  but  they  will  always  be  welcome 
during  the  daylight  hours.  The  observatory  is  always  open  in  the 
daytime  during  office  hours,  and  at  certain  times  of  the  day,  visitors 
will  be  personally  conducted  through  the  various  rooms. 

In  return  for  this  free  access,  we  confidently  expect  the  citizens 
of  California  to  jealously  guard  for  us  the  other  nights  of  the 
month,  and  to  see  to  it  that  these  other  nights  are  strictly  reserved 
for  purely  astronomical  uses,  and  to  the  prosecution  of  strictly 
scientific  work.  I  feel  entirely  sure,  when  it  is  known  how  imper- 
atively necessary  it  is,  in  order  that  any  valuable  discoveries  shall 
be  made,  that  the  whole  attention  of  the  astronomer  shall  be  con- 
centrated upon  his  work,  with  no  interruptions  and  no  distractions, 
that  we  shall  have  the  loyal  assistance  of  all  in  preserving  for  us 
that  freedom.  This  is  an  important  point  to  be  well  understood 
in  the  beginning.  The  observatory  fully  recognizes  its  duty  to 
the  community,  and  it  allows  the  freest  access  of  any  institu- 
tion of  like  character  in  the  world.  It  also  fully  recognizes  that 
it  is  primarily  here  to  advance  the  science  of  astronomy,  and  that 
unless  it  does  so,  the  large  telescope  had  better  be  given  to  some 
observatory  that  will  do  this,  and  the  buildings  and  grounds  be 
turned  over  to  the  State  for  a  public  park.  I  think  the  arrange- 
ment suggested  will  be  all  that  can  be  needed.  It  provides  not 
only  for  the  advancement  of  knowledge,  but  for  its  diffusion. 
Remember  how  many  thousands  of  visitors  to  California  there  are, 
and  how  few  nights  there  are  in  a  year,  and  see  to  it  that  your 
astronomers  have  all  the  time  they  need. " 

General  Remarks :  Be  sure  to  have  your  driver  point  out  to 
you  the  objects  of  interest  along  the  road.  Where  there  is  so  much 
to  see,  you  may  easily  miss  something  worth  remembering.  If  you 
will  glance  over  the  subsequent  parts  of  this  Hand-Book,  reading 
the  paragraphs  that  interest  you,  ib  may  serve  to  call  your  attention 
to  a  view  or  to  a  fact  that  you  would  wish  not  to  pass  by  unnoticed. 

On  your  arrival  at  the  observatory,  register  your  name  and  address  in 
the  Visitors1  Room. 

Visitors'  Room:  A  room  has  been  set  apart  in  the  observ- 
atory for  the  use  of  visitors,  and  comfortably  furnished.  A  dress- 
ing room  (for  ladies  only)  opens  from  it,  and  is  provided  with  fresh 
water,  towels,  soap,  etc. 

A  lavatory  for  men  opens  from  the  long  hall. 

It  is  not  allowed  to  take  luncheon  in  the  Visitors'  Room. 

If  no  one  is  present  to  receive  you,  pull  the  janitor's  bell  in  the 
room. 

The  Secretary's  office  is  immediately  across  the  hall. 


INFORMATION   FOR   INTENDING   VISITORS.  9 

Visitors  are  especially  requested  not  to  touch  or  handle  any  of 
the  astronomical  or  other  instruments.  An  idle  touch  may  disturb 
an  accurate  adjustment  which  it  has  required  hours  to  make. 
Opening  a  door  with  No  Admittance  upon  it  may  ruin  a  set  of 
photographic  plates  which  cannot  be  replaced. 

No  books  should  be  removed  from  the  library  shelves.  Most  of 
them  are  not  especially  rare,  but  they  cannot  be  replaced  on  this 
side  of  the  Atlantic. 

Near  many  of  the  instruments  is  a  little  printed  sign  giving  the 
chief  facts  regarding  it.  All  desired  information  can  frequently  be 
had  by  consulting  this.  The  janitor  or,  in  his  absence,  the  Sec- 
retary will  be  glad  to  answer  all  questions. 

Finally,  recollect  that  it  will  be  a  pleasure  to  each  one  of  the 
officers  and  employes  of  the  observatory  to  do  everything  that  may 
be  needed  to  make  your  visit  pleasant.  Remember,  however,  that 
their  time  belongs  to  science  and  to  the  State,  and  do  not  ask  any 
unreasonable  amount  of  their  attention  without  good  cause. 


JAMES   LICK 
Born  1796         -        Died  1876 
FOUNDER  OF  THE  LICK  OBSERVATORY 


(10) 


II.    SKETCH  OF  THE  LIFE  OF  JAMES  LICK. 


JAMES  LICK  was  born  in  Fredericksburg,  Pennsylvania,  August 
25th,  1796,  and  died  in  San  Francisco,  October  1,  1876.  He 
learned  and  practised  the  trade  of  organ  and  piano  making  in  Han- 
over, Pennsylvania  and  in  Baltimore.  In  1820  he  was  in  business 
in  Philadelphia.  From  there  he  went  to  Buenos  Ayres,  making 
and  selling  pianos.  From  the  east  coast  of  South  America  he  came 
to  the  west,  and  finally  in  1847  he  drifted  to  San  Francisco. 

Successful  in  business  but  far  more  successful  in  his  investments 
in  land  he  became  rich  and  died,  leaving  an  estate  of  some  $3,000,000. 
This  was  all  devoted  to  public  uses  His  deed  of  trust  charged  the 
Board  of  LICK  Trustees  to  expend : — 

For  a  monument  in  San  Francisco  to  FRANCIS  SCOTT  KEY  (author 
of  the  Star  Spangled  Banner)  the  sum  of  $60,000.  This  monument 
has  been  made  by  the  celebrated  American  sculptor  WILLIAM  W. 
STORY  and  it  will  be  erected  in  Golden  Gate  Park  on  July  4,  1888. 

For  statuary  to  be  placed  in  front  of  the  San  Francisco  City  Hall 
and  to  be  emblematic  of  three  significant  epochs  in  the  history  of 
the  State  of  California,  $100,000. 

For  a  Home  for  Old  Ladies  in  San  Francisco,  $100,000. 

For  Free  Baths  in  San  Francisco,  $150,000. 

For  a  California  Institute  of  Mechanic  Arts — a  manual  training 
school  for  the  boys  and  girls  of  San  Francisco,  $540,000. 

For  the  Lick  Observatory,  to  contain  the  most  powerful  telescope 
in  the  world,  $700,000,  besides  many  other  important  bequests,  to 
the  Society  of  California  Pioneers,  to  the  California  Academy  of 
Sciences  and  other  beneficiaries. 

His  exact  provisions  in  regard  to  the  Observatory  were  : — 

EXTRACT  FROM  MR.  LICK'S  SECOND  DEED  OF  TRUST.       (SEPT.  21,  1875.) 

Third — To  expend  the  sum  of  seven  hundred  thousand  dollars 
($700,000)  for  the  purpose  of  purchasing  land,  and  constructing 
and  putting  up  011  such  land  as  shall  be  designated  by  the  party  of 
the  first  part,  a  powerful  telescope  superior  to  and  more  powerful 
than  any  telescope  yet  made,  with  all  the  machinery  appertaining 
thereto  and  appropriately  connected  therewith,  or  that  is  necessary 
and  convenient  to  the  most  powerful  telescope  now  in  use,  or  suited 
to  one  more  powerful  than  any  yet  constructed;  and  also  a  suitable 
observatory  connected  therewith.  The  parties  of  the  second  part 
hereto,  and  their  successors,  shall,  as  soon  as  said  telescope  and  ob- 
servatory are  constructed,  convey  the  land  whereupon  the  same  may 


12  SKETCH   OF  THE   LIFE   OF  JAMES   LICK. 

be  situated,  and  the  telescope,  and  the  observatory,  and  all  the  ma- 
chinery and  apparatus  connected  therewith,  to  the  corporation 
known  as  the  'Regents  of  the  University  of  California;'  and  if, 
after  the  construction  of  said  telescope  and  observatory,  there  shall 
remain  of  said  seven  hundred  thousand  dollars  in  gold  coin  any 
surplus,  the  said  parties  of  the  second  part  shall  turn  over  such  sur- 
plus to  said  corporation,  to  be  invested  by  it  in  bonds  of  the  United 
States,  or  of  the  City  and  County  of  San  Francisco,  or  other  good 
and  safe  interest-bearing  bonds,  and  the  income  thereof  shall  be 
devoted  to  the  maintenance  of  said  telescope  and  the  observatory 
connected  therewith,  and  shall  be  made  useful  in  promoting  science; 
and  the  said  telescope  and  observatory  are  to  be  known  as  'the 
Lick  Astronomical  Department  of  the  University  of  California.'  " 

Of  all  of  Mr.  LICK'S  gifts  that  one  which  will  be  most  widely 
known  and  in  a  large  sense,  most  widely  useful,  is  the  gift  of  the 
Astronomical  Observatory  which  bears  his  name. 

It  will  never  be  known  exactly  how  Mr.  LICK  finally  decided 
upon  the  construction  of  the  observatory  which  bears  his  name. 
He  was  an  assiduous  reader,  and  among  his  favorite  books  were  those 
of  ANDREW  JACKSON  DAVIS  which  like  EDGAR  POE'S  Eureka,  present 
a  cosmogony  more  poetic  than  veracious.  It  is  possible  that  his 
thoughts  were  turned  to  astronomy  by  these  books. 

It  would  be  of  extreme  interest  if  one  could  give  a  truly  adequate 
view  of  the  character  of  Mr.  LICK,  and  of  the  motives  which  led 
him  to  dispose  of  his  large  fortune  in  public  gifts,  and  especially  of 
the  motive.!  which  led  him  to  found  an  astronomical  observatory. 

Certainly,  110  sufficient  exposition  of  either  his  character  or  of 
his  motives  has  yet  appear  3d  in  print.  There  is  no  doubt  that  a 
desire  to  be  remembered  by  his  fellow-men  influenced  him  largely. 
He  wished  to  do  something  which  should  be  important  in  itself,  and 
which  should  be  done  in  a  way  to  strike  the  imagination.  He  was 
only  restrained  from  building  a  marble  pyramid  larger  than  that  of 
CHEOPS  on  the  shores  of  San  Francisco  Bay,  by  the  fear  that  in 
some  future  war  the  pyramid  might  perish  in  a  possible  bombard- 
ment of  the  place.  The  observatory  took  the  place  of  the  pyramid. 

The  beauty  of  the  one  was  to  find  a  substitute  in  the  scientific  use 
of  the  other.  Ihe  instruments  were  to  be  so  large  that  new  and 
striking  discoveries  were  to  follow  inevitably,  and,  if  possible,  living 
beings  on  the  surface  of  the  moon  were  to  be  described,  as  a  be- 
ginning. 

It  would,  however,  be  a  gross  error  to  take  these  wild  imaginings 
as  a  complete  index  of  his  strange  character.  A  very  extensive 
course  of  reading  had  fixed  in  him  the  generous  idea  that  the  future 
well-being  of  the  race  was  the  object  for  a  good  man  to  strive  to 
forward.  Towards  the  end  of  his  life  at  least,  the  utter  futility  of 
his  money  to  give  any  inner  satisfaction  oppressed  him  more  and 
more.  The  generous  impulses  and  half-acknowledged  enthusiasms 


SKETCH   OF  THE   LIFE  OF  JAMES   LICK.  13 

of  earlier  days  began  to  quicken,  and  the  eccentric  and  unsymmetri- 
cally  developed  mind  gave  strange  forms  to  these  desires.  If  he 
had  lived  to  carry  out  his  own  plans,  hi  3  fellow  citizens  might  have 
gained  less  from  his  gifts  than  they  will  now  gain.  If  his  really 
powerful  mind  could  have  received  a  symmetric  training,  there  is 
110  question  but  that  the  present  disposition  of  his  endowment  would 
entirely  satisfy  him. 

He  has  been  most  fortunate  in  having  his  desires  studied  and 
given  an  ultimate  form  by  successive  sets  of  trustees,  who  had  no 
ends  in  view  but  to  make  this  strangely  acquired  gift  most  useful  to 
the  city,  the  State,  and  the  country.  He  is  buried  in  the  base  of 
the  pier  of  the  great  equatorial  on  Mount  Hamilton,  and  has  such 
a  tomb  as  no  old-world  emperor  could  have  commanded  or  imagined. 

REMOVAL   OF  MR.    LICK'S  REMAINS   TO   MOUNT   HAMILTON. 

Mr.  LICK  several  times  expressed  his  desire  to  be  buried  at  Mount 
Hamilton  near  his  great  observatory  when  it  should  be  complete. 
During  the  summer  of  1886  the  brick  foundation  for  the  iron  pier 
of  the  great  equatorial  was  built  by  Mr.  FRASER  and  a  suitable 
vault  was  prepared  directly  under  the  spot  where  the  great  telescope 
was  to  be  and  now  is.  In  January  1887  the  Lick  Trustees  invited 
a  number  of  representative  gentlemen  to  act  as  an  escort  of  honor 
during  the  transfer  of  Mr.  LICK'S  remains  from  their  temporary 
resting  place  in  San  Francisco  to  their  final  tomb  on  Mount 
Hamilton. 

At  San  Jose  the  cortege  was  met  by  a  delegation  of  citizens  headed 
by  the  Mayor  of  the  city;  and  the  coffin  was  transferred  from  the 
cars  to  a  mountain-wagon,  and  covered  by  the  star  spangled  banner. 
Mr.  FRASER,  who  had  been  Mr.  LICK'S  confidential  man  of  business, 
and  who  was  then  Superintendent  of  Construction,  conducted  this 
wagon  in  the  lead ;  and  the  body  was  followed  by  the  escort. 

At  the  observatory,  the  procession  was  met  by  Captain  FLOYD, 
the  President  of  the  Trustees,  and  after  a  simple  and  impressive 
ceremony  the  coffin  was  opened,  the  remains  identified,  and  the 
casket  sealed  within  a  leaden  case  and  cemented  beneath  the  mas- 
sive blocks  of  stone  which  form  the  foundation  of  the  great  telescope 
which  Mr.  LICK  has  given  to  his  fellow  citizens. 

Before  the  close  of  the  ceremonies  Professor  GEORGE  DAVIDSON, 
President  of  the  California  Academy  of  Sciences,  read  to  the  escort 
and  had  signed  by  them,  the  following  admirable  document  ofidenti- 
Jication  which  had  been  drawn  up  by  him. 

This  document  was  engrossed  on  parchment,  placed  between  two 
fine  tanned  skins  backed  with  silk,  placed  again  between  two 
leaden  plates,  soldered  securely  in  a  tin  box,  and  finally  deposited 
within  the  coffin  itself. 


14  SKETCH   OF  THE   LIFE   OF   JAMES   LICK. 

DOCUMENT   OF   IDENTIFICATION. 

This  is  the  body  of 

JAMES  LICK, 

who  was  born  in  Fredericksburg,  Penn.,  August  25,  1796,  and  who 
died  in  San  Francisco,  Cal.,  October  1,  1876. 

It  has  been  identified  by  us  and  in  our  presence  has  been  sealed 
up  and  deposited  in  this  Foundation  Pier  of  the 

GREAT  EQUATORIAL  TELESCOPE 
this  ninth  day  of  January,  1887. 

In  the  year  1875  he  executed  a  Deed  of  Trust  of  his  Entire  Estate 
by  which  he  provided  for  the  Comfort  and  Culture  of  the  Citizens  of 
California;  for  the  Advancement  of  Handera ft  and  Rede-craft  among 
the  Youth  of  San  Francisco  and  of  the  State ;  for  the  Development  of 
Scientific  Research  and  the  Diffusion  of  Knowledge  among  Men  and  for 

FOUNDING  IN  THE  STATE   OF  CALIFORNIA    AN    ASTRONOMICAL    OBSERV- 
ATORY TO   SURPASS   ALL   OTHERS  EXISTING   IN   THE   WORLD 
AT  THIS   EPOCH. 

This  observatory  has  been  erected  by  the  Trustees  of  his  estate, 
and  has  been  named 

THE  LICK   ASTRONOMICAL   DEPARTMENT   OF  THE   UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

in  memory  of  the  founder. 

This  refracting  telescope  is  the  largest  which  has  ever  been  con- 
structed and  the  astronomers  who  have  tested  it  declare  that  its 
performance  surpasses  that  of  all  other  telescopes.  The  two  discs 
of  glass  for  the  objective  were  cast  by  CH.  FEIL  of  France  and  were 
wrought  to  a  true  figure  by  ALVAN  CLARK  &  SONS  of  Massachusetts. 
Their  diameter  is  thirty-six  inches  and  their  focal  length  is  fifty-six 
feet  two  inches. 

Upon  the  completion  of  this  structure  the  Regents  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  California  become  the  Trustees  of  this  Astronomical  Observatory. 
[Signed:]    The  Board  of  Trustees  of  the  Lick  Estate, 
RICHARD  S.  FLOYD,  President, 
E.  B.  MASTICK, 
CHARLES  M.  PLUM, 
GEORGE  SCHONWALD, 

The  President  of  the  Board  of  Regents  of  the  University  of  Cali- 
fornia and  Governor  of  the  State  of  California, 

WASHINGTON  BARTLETT, 

(By  J.  W.  WINANS.) 

The  President  of  the  University  of  California  and  Director  of  the 
Observatory, 

EDWARD  SINGLETON  HOLDEN, 


SKETCH   OF  THE   LIFE   OF  JAMES   LICK.  15 

The  President  of  the  California  Academy  of  Sciences  and  of  the 
Council  thereof, 

GEORGE  DAVIDSON, 

The  President  of  the  Board  of  Trustees  of  the  California  Academy 
of  Sciences, 

GEORGE  E.  GRAY, 
The  President  of  the  Society  of  California  Pioneers, 

GUSTAVE  REIS, 
A  Director  and  ex-President  of  the  Society  of  California  Pioneers, 

PETER  DEAN, 
The  Mayor  of  the  City  of  San  Jose, 

C.  W.  BREYFOGLE. 


The  base  of  the  great  pier  bears  a  simple  bronze  tablet  with  the 
inscription 

HERE  LIES  THE  BODY  OF 

JAMES  LICK. 

His  true  monument  is  the  Observatory  which  he  reared,  and  his 
lasting  memorial  will  be  the  results  of  those  astronomical  observa- 
tions which  his  generosity  has  instituted  and  endowed 


III.     A  VISIT  TO  MOUNT  HAMILTON. 


Drive  from  San  Jose*  to  the  Summit  of  Mount  Hamilton :    The 

regular  stages  for  the  Lick  Observatory  depart  from  San  Jose  about 
half -past  seven  in  the  morning  in  order  to  have  a  long  day  before 
the  tourist.  The  straight,  level  avenue  leaves  the  central  square 
of  the  pretty  and  prosperous  city  and  makes  straight  for  the  foot- 
hills, some  four  miles  distant.  On  the  left  hand  (north)  are  the 
sloughs  of  the  Bay  of  San  Francisco  shining  in  the  sun;  on  the  right 
hand  are  beautiful,  fertile  fields.  At  the  end  of  the  four  miles  we 
are  300  feet  above  San  Jose,  and  we  begin  the  ascent  of  the  Contra 
Costa  range  of  hills,  which  border  the  exquisite  Valley  of  Santa 
Clara  on  the  east. 

The  road  is  built  so  that  the  grade  is  always  kept  less  than  six 
and  a  half  feet  in  the  hundred  (343  to  the  mile).  This  maximum 
grade  is  only  occasionally  met  in  the  first  portions  of  the  twenty-six 
miles,  while  the  last  seven  miles  have  an  average  grade  of  nearly 
300  feet  per  mile.  In  order  to  keep  the  gradient  as  low  as  this  the 
thirteen  miles  of  distance  in  an  air  line  is  made  into  twenty-six  by 
the  road,  which  follows  the  contours  of  the  hillsides,  turning  into 
each  ravine,  following  this  to  its  head,  and  returning  on  itself 
along  the  opposite  side.  From  the  time  that  the  ascent  is  com- 
menced every  moment  is  full  of  interest,  for  in  all  California  there 
is  no  mountain  road  more  delightful  than  this.  The  descent  of  St. 
Helena  mountain  into  Napa  Valley  and  the  drive  over  the  summit 
of  the  Santa  Cruz  range  from  Saratoga  to  Santa  Cruz  are  the  only 
ones  which  I  know  of  in  the  State  which  can  compare  with  it. 

Finally  we  have  climbed  the  side  of  the  first  range  of  hills  and 
rest  for  a  moment  at  the  Grand  View  House  (1,500  feet  above  the 
sea)  before  we  turn  sharply  eastward  towards  the  divide  (1,838  feet) 
which  separates  the  Santa  Clara  Valley  from  a  small  interior  basin 
known  as  Hall's  Valley.  Before  we  leave  this  stopping  ^lace  we 
should  turn  our  faces  towards  San  Jose  and  see  how  it  lies  in  its 
lovely  valley  and  mark  the  dark  summit  of  Loma  Prkta  (Spanish 
for  Black  mountain)  which  is  3,790  feet  high  and  30  miles  distant. 
This  is  the  highest  peak  of  the  Santa  Cruz  mountains  and  its  great 
dome  is  a  landmark  for  miles  and  miles.  Mt.  Choual  (3,500  feet)  is 
next  north  of  it  and  then  comes  Mt.  Thayer  (3,550  feet.)  We  shall 
see  these  mountains  again  from  the  summit  of  Mt.  Hamilton  which 
is  plainly  visible  right  before  us.  We  descend  rapidly  into  Hall's 
Valley  (1,544  feet)  along  a  beautiful  road  and  past  some  magnificent 
'17) 


18  A  VISIT  TO   MOUNT   HAMILTON. 

oaks,  and  again  commence  an  ascent  and  reach  a  stopping  place  in 
the  journey  at  the  Smith  Creek  Hotel  at  the  very  foot  of  the  moun- 
tain (2,146  feet  above  the  sea.)  Here  is  a  comfortable  country  hotel 
and  here  is  the  last  place  on  the  road  where  an  inn  can  be  found. 

The  only  buildings  on  the  summit  are  those  of  the  observatory 
proper,  and  the  private  dwellings  of  the  astronomers.  There  is  no 
hotel  on  the  summit ;  only  a  visitors'  room,  in  which  there  are  lava- 
tories where  the  tired  traveler  can  remove  the  dust  from  his  face 
and  rest  a  moment  after  the  long  though  interesting  drive.  Those 
who  wish  to  look  through  the  large  telescope  on  the  public  nights 
(every  Saturday  evening  from  7  to  10)  must  secure  rooms  at  the 
Smith  Creek  Hotel ;  for  at  10  o'clock  the  observatory  is  closed  to 
visitors  who  have  to  return  to  Smith  Creek  for  a  lodging,  leaving  the 
astronomers  to  finish  the  night  in  their  regular  avocation  of  '  'mind- 
ing the  heavens." 

At  Smith  Creek  we  are  still  2,152  feet  below  the  summit  and  we 
have  still  seven  miles  to  go.  The  grade  is  heavy,  and  even  with  a 
good  team  an  hour  and  a  half  is  required  for  the  ascent.  The  road 
is  full  of  turns  and  twists  and  the  scenery  is  rugged  and  wilder, 
though  the  beautiful  trees  relieve  its  hard  outlines.  The  observatory 
buildings  and  especially  the  great  seventy -five-foot  dome  seem  to 
be  directly  above  us,  though  each  successive  mile  hardly  seems  to 
bring  us  nearer.  Those  of  us  who  are  vigorous  and  enterprising 
get  out  at  the  "flat"  where  the  brick-kilns  stand  and  walk  up 
the  trail  to  the  summit.  The  sage  ones  remain  in  the  wagon  and 
do  not  lose  their  breath  and  have  more  leisure  to  view  the  magni- 
ficent hills  and  deed  gorges  and  canons  on  all  sides  of  the  way. 

Finally  the  stage  winds  round  the  base  of  Mt.  Ptolemy,  named 
after  the  great  astronomer  of  Greece,  and  emerges  just  south  of  the 
shining  white  Dome  which  we  have  seen  for  so  long.  A  few  words 
of  encouragement  to  the  horses  and  directly  we  have  passed 
completely  round  the  base  of  Observatory  Peak  (Mt.  Hamilton) 
and  come  to  the  narrow  saddle  where  the  Astronomers'  cottages  lie 
nestled,  against  the  side  of  the  mountain.  We  make  a  complete 
turn  about  the  summit  passing  once  more  directly  beneath  the 
white  Dome  and  then  up  to  the  summit-level  and  draw  up  before 
the  western  entrance  to  the  building  and  alight.  Here  a  sign  tells 
us  to  ring  the  visitors'  bell  and  the  Janitor  admits  us  and  shows  us 
to  the  visitors'  room.  The  routine  of  the  establishment  requires 
us  to  register  our  names  and  addresses  in  a  large  book ;  and  after 
this  is  done  and  the  dust  removed  from  our  faces,  we  are  ready  to 
look  about  us  and  to  see  what  manner  of  thing  it  is  which  the  busy 
hand  of  man  has  builded  on  the  summit  of  these  splendid  hills. 

From  the  roof  of  the  building  we  can  see  all  around  the  horizon, 
and  we  begin  to  get  a  connected  idea  of  the  great  topographic 
features.  First  we  look  back  over  the  tortuous  road  that  we  have 
just  left  and  see  where  the  Santa  Clara  Valloy  and  San  Jose  lie 


A   VISIT  TO   MOUNT   HAMILTON.  19 

towards  the  West.  Tamalpais  (66  miles  distant,  2,600  feet  high)  is 
plainly  visible,  and  we  know  that  the  restless  tides  of  the  Golden 
Gate  bathe  his  feet.  Between  us  and  Tamalpais  we  see  first  the 
arms  of  San  Francisco  Bay,  then  a  range  of  summits  (Mts.  Story, 
Lewis,  and  Day,  counting  from  west  towards  north.) 

On  the  hither  side  of  these  summits  is  the  deep  and  wild  canon  of 
Smith's  Creek  which  breaks  through  the  mountains  here  on  its  way 
to  join  the  Calaveras  and  to  pour  its  waters  into  the  Bay.  Some 
day  or  another  a  large  part  of  the  water  supply  of  San  Francisco 
must  be  gathered  here.  Just  over  this  canon  we  see  the  symmetrical 
cone  of  Monte  Diablo  (39  miles  distant  and  3,849  feet  high)  in  the 
north  west.  Immediately  below  us  on  the  north  is  a  deep  black 
canon  (Canon  Negro]  which  seems  to  join  that  of  Smith  Creek. 
Looking  across  it  we  see  a  high  mountain  (Mt.  Galileo)  about  a  mile 
away.  Along  its  flank  we  can  trace  the  winding  road  which  leads 
to  the  springs  and  reservoir  (Aquarius]  which  supply  the  observatory. 
They  are  340  feet  below  us.  A  narrow  saddle  connects  Galileo 
with  Mt.  Copernicus  (4,380  feet  high,  4,450  feet  distant  by  the  road). 

There  is  a  high  service  reservoir  on  its  summit,  171  feet  above 
the  observatory  floor  (which  itself  is  4,209  feet  above  the  sea.) 

We  are  now  looking  northeast.  Still  further  to  the  east  is  Mt. 
Kepler  (4,257  feet),  also  crowned  with  a  reservoir.  Between 
Copernicus  and  Kepler  is  a  distant  peak,  Mt.  Hipparchus,  named 
after  the  father  of  Greek  astronomy.  To  the  right  of  Kepler  and 
a  mile  or  so  distant  rises  the  huge  form  of  Mt.  Santa  Isabel  (so 
named  by  the  Spaniards)  with  a  profound  canon  separating  it 
from  us.  Just  below  us,  on  the  hither  side  of  the  canon,  is  Mt. 
Huyghens  with  a  third  reservoir  and  a  windmill  on  its  summit. 
Between  Kepler  and  Jsabel  lies  the  rugged  San  Anton  Valley, 
used  for  a  cattle  ranch.  Beyond  it,  rising  in  divide  after  divide, 
are  the  ranges  of  mountains  which  border  the  San  Joaquin  Valley 
on  the  west.  The  highest  of  these  is  Mt.  Oso  (3,363  feet  high  and 
eighteen  miles  away).  To  the  right  (south)  of  Isabel  in  the  distance 
you  may  see  the  Pacheco  Peaks,  Mariposa  and  Santa  Ana  moun- 
tains. Due  south  of  us  is  Mt.  Toro  (fifty-five  miles  distant  and 
3,500  feet  high)  and  a  very  rugged  mountain — Murphy's  Peak — six 
miles  off.  On  the  horizon  near  this  you  may  see  the  waters  of 
Monterey  Bay.  A  little  further  to  the  west  and  we  come  again  to 
the  now  familiar  landmark  of  Loma  Prieta.  Between  this  and 
Tamalpais  you  may  catch  a  glimpse  of  the  sea  horizon,  eighty-seven 
miles  distant.  We  have  oriented  ourselves  and  begun  to  know  our 
surroundings.  At  sunrise  the  summits  of  the  Sierras  (130  miles  off) 
can  be  plainly  seen,  and  there  are  times  when  Lassen's  Butte  (175 
miles)  is  visible. 

Leaving  the  splendid  panorama  of  the  hills,  we  look  at  the  build- 
ings immediately  around  us.  We  are  on  the  roof  of  the  observatory 
proper.  At  the  north  end  of  it  is  the  twenty-five -foot  dome,  which 


(20) 


(21) 


22  A      VISIT   TO   MOUNT  HAMILTON. 

covers  a  telescope  of  twelve  inches  aperture.  Directly  opposite  to 
it,  at  the  south  end,  is  the  great  seventy-five-foot  dome.  Towards 
the  northeast  are  the  houses  which  cover  the  transit  instrument 
and  the  meridian-circle;  beyond  them  is  the  brick  dwelling-house 
of  the  astronomers.  These  small  buildings  nearer  to  us  are  for  some 
of  the  minor  instruments.  That  little  dome  covers  a  very  perfect 
six-inch  equatorial. 

But  it  is  time  to  descend  and  go  through  the  various  rooms  of  the 
observatory  building.  There,  with  the  explanations  of  our  guide, 
we  may  gain  some  idea  of  what  all  these  constructions  are  for ;  why 
there  are  so  many  of  them ;  and  finally,  with  what  object  these 
changes  have  been  made  on  the  summits  of  the  silent  hills.  Recollect 
that  it  was  only  a  few  years  ago  that  a  wilderness  was  here.  Why 
has  it  been  so  transformed?  Was  it  worth  while?  What  may 
be  expected  from  all  this  ?  There  should  be  satisfying  answers  to 
all  these  questions. 


(23) 


x^"      * ri 

if  OK    TRR 

((  UNIVERSITY 


IY.    HISTORY  OF  THE  LICK  OBSERVATORY. 


In  1874  MR.  LICK  gave  $700,000  to  a  Board  of  Trustees  (MR.  D. 
0.  MILLS,  President)  to  provide  a  telescope  ' '  more  powerful  than 
any  yet  made";  and  "a  suitable  observatory  connected  therewith  " 
was  specified  in  the  deed. 

Just  before  this  time  Professor  YOUNG  had  been  making  observa- 
tions at  Sherman,  in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  Professor  DAVIDSON 
had  made  several  reports  on  the  fitness  of  the  high  Sierras  as  a  site 
for  an  observatory.  Mr.  LICK  was  advised  to  choose  a  mountain 
site  for  his  new  observatory  and  was  seriously  considering  the 
selection  of  a  place  near  Lake  Tahoe.  This  site  was  subsequently 
abandoned  on  account  of  the  severe  winters,  etc.  In  the  fall  of 
1874  Mr.  MILLS  came  to  Washington  to  consult  Professor  NEWCOMB 
and  myself  and  others  in  Washington.  The  whole  matter  was 
thoroughly  discussed  between  us  and  a  project  for  the  buildings 
and  instruments  of  the  new  observatory  was  made.  This  was 
reduced  to  writing  by  me  in  October,  1874,  and  rough  sketches 
were  made  of  the  principal  buildings,  etc.,  by  Professor  NEWCOMB 
and  myself.  As  it  was  then  a  question  whether  "the  most  power- 
ful telescope"  should  be  a  reflector  or  a  refractor,  Dr.  HENRY 
DRAPER'S  counsel  was  asked  for  and  freely  given.  Sir  HOWARD 
GRUBB  also  gave  much  time  to  projects  for  the  observatory.  A 
frame  of  photographs  at  the  observatory  exhibits  some  of  these 
early  projects.  One  of  Sir  HOWARD  GRUBB'S  plans  advises  placing 
a  large  telescope  at  the  bottom  of  a  great  well  excavated  in  the 
rock  and  closed  by  a  sliding  lid  at  the  level  of  the  summit.  These 
early  projects  have  great  interest,  as  they  show  through  what 
changed  conditions  the  observatory  has  passed. 

ACT  OF  CONGRESS  GRANTING  THE  SITE  FOR  THE  LICK 
OBSERVATORY. 

Forty-fourth  Congress. 

CHAPTER  120.  An  Act  granting  a  site  for  an  observatory  to  the 
Trustees  of  the  Lick  Observatory  of  the  Astronomical  Department 
of  the  University  of  California.  (Approved  June  7,  1876.) 

Be  it  enacted  by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  of  the 
United  States  of  America,  in  Congress  assembled : 

That,  whereas,  JAMES  LICK,  of  San  Francisco,  California,  has,  by 
deed  of  trust,  given  a  large  sum  of  money  for  the  erection  and 
equipment  of  an  observatory,  dedicating  the  same  to  the  Astronom- 
ical Department  of  the  University  of  California,  for  scientific  and 
(24) 


HISTORY  OF  THE   LICK  OBSERVATORY.  25 

educational  purposes,  and  has  selected  Mt.  Hamilton,  in  the  County 
of  Santa  Clara,  the  State  aforesaid,  as  the  site  for  said  observatory, 
and  which  is  situate  on  the  public  lands  of  the  United  States,  in 
township  seven  south,  and  range  three  east,  Mt.  Diablo  meridian, 
the  following  described  land  in  said  township  is  hereby  reserved 
from  sale  or  disposal  under  the  general  laws  of  the  United  States, 
to  wit: 

Section  nine,  the  north  half  of  section  ten,  the  south  half  of  sec- 
tion three,  and  the  fractional  section  seventeen. 

SEC.  2.  That  so  much  of  said  land  as  is  not  already  granted  or 
disposed  of  by  the  United  States,  to  wit,  section  nine,  the  north 
half  of  section  ten,  the  south  half  of  section  three,  and  fractional 
section  seventeen,  be,  and  the  same  is  hereby  granted  to  the  Trust- 
ees of  the  Lick  Observatory  of  the  Astronomical  Department  of  the 
University  of  California,  with  authority  and  in  trust  to  convey  the 
same  to  the  Regents  of  the  University  of  California,  and  their  suc- 
cessors, in  trust  for  the  use  and  benefit  of  the  Astronomical  Depart- 
ment of  the  University  of  California;  provided,  that  if  the  land 
herein  granted  shall  be  used  for  any  other  purpose  than  the  site  of 
said  observatory,  and  the  necessary  purposes  in  connection  there- 
with, the  same  shall  revert  to  the  United  States. 

In  1875  Professor  NEWCOMB  was  asked  to  go  to  Europe  to  see 
where  glass  discs  of  a  large  size  could  be  had.  It  was  strongly 
urged  upon  Mr.  MILLS  that  Mr.  BURNHAM  should  test  the  excellence 
of  the  various  sites  under  consideration  by  actually  making  astronom- 
ical observations  at  each  of  them  before  a  final  selection  was 
made.  This  suggestion  was  not  carried  out  till  1879,  however. 
When  Mr.  MILLS  returned  to  California,  he  found  that  Mr.  LICK 
was  not  satisfied  with  the  policy  of  his  Trustees,  and  after  a  time 
the  Board  resigned  and  a  second  Board  was  appointed.  Mr.  LICK 
was  equally  dissatisfied  with  the  policy  of  the  second  Board  and 
finally  a  third  set  of  Trustees  was  selected  in  1876,  which  has  acted 
until  the  present  time.  On  Mr.  LICK'S  death,  in  1876,  many  distress- 
ing legal  complications  arose,  and  it  was  not  until  1879  that  they 
were  finally  disposed  of,  and  work  on  the  observatory  was  begun. 

In  1876  I  met  Capt.  FLOYD,  the  President  of  the  Lick  Trustees, 
in  London,  and  together  we  visited  various  observatories  and 
astronomers.  Capt.  FLOYD  also  spent  some  months  on  the  continent 
on  the  same  business.  In  the  mean  time  Mr.  LICK  had  agreed  to 
build  his  observatory  at  Mt.  Hamilton  in  Santa  Clara  county,  on 
condition  that  the  county  should  build  a  road  to  the  summit.  This 
road,  26  miles  long,  costing  $78,000,  was  built  in  1876.  The  selec- 
tion of  Mt.  Hamilton,  rather  than  Mt.  Diablo,  Loma  Prieta,  St. 
Helena,  or  a  mountain  further  south  was  made  by  Mr.  LICK  on  the 
report  of  Mr.  FRASER,  who  has  been  the  efficient  superintendent  of 
construction  of  the  Lick  Observatory  from  1876  to  November,  1887. 


26  HISTORY  OF  THE   LICK   OBSERVATORY. 

In  1879  Mr.  BURNHAM  was  invited  by  the  Lick  Trustees  to  bring 
his  six-inch  telescope  to  Mt.  Hamilton  and  to  observe  double  stars 
there,  so  that  he  could  test  the  quality  of  the  vision  and  compare  it 
with  that  of  Chicago,  Hanover  (N.  H.)  and  Washington.  Mr. 
BURNHAM  spent  August,  September  and  part  of  October  on  the 
mountain,  in  camp.  In  a  capital  report  to  the  Lick  Trustees  (1880) 
he  gave  the  results  of  his  work.  It  was  found  that  the  nights  of 
summer  and  autumn,  say  April  to  October  or  November,  were  ex- 
cellent both  as  to  clearness  of  vision  and  as  to  steadiness.  The 
daylight  hours  are  less  satisfactory.  Mr.  KEELER  has  lately  shown 
that  the  vision  in  winter  time  is  not  specially  better  than  that  at 
lower  elevations.  The  secret  of  the  steady  seeing  at  Mt.  Hamilton 
lies  in  the  coast  fogs.  These  roll  in  from  the  sea  every  afternoon 
in  summer,  rising  1,500  to  2,000  feet.  They  cover  the  hot  valley 
and  keep  the  radiation  from  it  shut  in.  There  are  no  fogs  in  the 
daytime  and  few  inthe  winter.  A  portion  of  Mr.  BURNHAM 's  inter- 
esting and  valuable  report  is  reprinted  here. 

REPORT  OF  MR.  S.  W.  BURNHAM  (1879). 

Situation  of  Mt.  Hamilton  :  "The  City  of  San  Jose,  the  nearest 
point  of  railroad  communication  from  Mt.  Hamilton,  is  50  miles 
south  of  San  Francisco.  Mt.  Hamilton,  by  the  highway,  is  26  miles 
from  San  Jose,  nearly  east,  and  is  reached  by  a  good  road,  con- 
structed by  the  County  of  Santa  Clara.  In  order  to  keep  the  grade 
within  the  limit  of  six  feet  in  one  hundred,  the  last  portion  of  the 
road  is  carried  up  the  ridges  of  the  mountain  by  a  circuitous  route. 
The  distance  between  the  Observatory  and  San  Jose,  in  an  air  line, 
is  only  13  miles. 
The  approximate  geographical  position  of  the  Observatory  peak  is: 

Longitude , 2h.  58m.  22.2s.  (Washington.) 

Latitude 37°  20'  24.6". 

The  elevation  of  this  point  is  4,209  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea.  The  north  peak,  which  is  about  four-fifths  of  a  mile  distant 
is  171  feet  higher.  The  ridge  between  is  lower,  along  which  is  a 
good  trail  connecting  the  two  peaks.  The  sides  of  the  mountain, 
in  most  directions  are  very  steep,  and  form  an  acute  angle  ,at  the 
summit.  The  view  from  the  peak  is  unobstructed  in  every  direc- 
tion, there  being  no  higher  ground  within  a  radius  of  100  miles. 

At  sunset  the  Pacific  Ocean  is  seen  over  the  summit  of  the  Coast 
Range  at  various  points  ;  and  occasionally  a  snow-covered  mountain 
was  seen  in  a  northerly  direction,  supposed  to  be  Lassen  Butte,  the 
distance  of  which  is  about  175  miles.  The  great  range  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada,  about  130  miles  distant,  came  out  sharp  and  distinct  at 


HISTORY  OF  THE  LICK   OBSERVATORY.  27 

Weather :  The  kind  of  weather  for  astronomical  purposes  dur- 
ing the  whole  period  of  60  days  from  August  17  to  October  16,  1879, 
inclusive,  was  briefly  as  follows: 

First-class  nights 42 

Medium 7 

Cloudy  and  foggy 11 

By  first  class  seeing  I  mean  such  a  night  as  will  allow  of  the  use 
of  the  highest  powers  to  advantage,  giving  sharp,  well -defined 
images,  and  when  the  closest  and  most  difficult  double  stars  within 
the  grasp  of  the  instrument  can  be  satisfactorily  measured.  In 
ordinary  situations,  the  clear  nights  would  be  divisible  into  at  least 
four  classes,  which  might  be  described  as  very  good,  good  or  medium, 
poor,  and  very  poor.  While  there  might  be  some  difference  in  the 
nights  on  Mt.  Hamilton  I  have  described  as  first  doss,  the  difference 
seemed  not  to  be  sufficient  to  place  any  of  them  in  a  lower  grade. 
The  conditions  were  generally  very  permanent  for  the  entire  night, 
and  this  is  not  often  the  case  in  eastern  localities  where  I  have 
used  a  telescope.  It  may  grow  better,  and  may  get  worse,  but 
rarely  continues  the  same  the  whole  night.  On  many  nights,  at 
Mt.  Hamilton,  I  remained  at  the  instrument  until  daylight,  and  so 
had  abundant  opportunities  to  observe  this  important  fact. 

The  average  daily  maximum  temperature  in  the  shade,  for  the 
first  five  weeks,  was  88°  and  the  minimum  64°.  The  thermometer 
at  9  P.  M.  would  ordinarily  be  12°  or  15°  lower  than  at  3  P.  M. 

In  connection  with  the  dryness  of  the  air  the  heat  did  not  seem 
to  be  excessive,  and  it  was  seldom  uncomfortably  warm  in  the  shade. 
The  extreme  range  of  the  barometer  during  this  time  was  between 
25.30  and  25.45  inches  from  August  17  to  October  16.  During  the 
last  two  weeks  a  much  lower  temperature  was  reached,  on  one  oc- 
casion the  minimum  thermometer  indicating  30°. 

Observations :  Many  celestial  objects  in  all  the  different  classes 
were  examined  with  the  telescope  at  different  times,  and  if  they  are 
not  all  referred  to  here,  it  is  for  the  reason  that  the  observations 
would  furnish  no  satisfactory  evidence  of  what  could  be  done  at 
this  place  with  a  6-inch  object  glass.  The  appearance  presented  by 
the  moon,  planets,  nebulae,  etc.,  under  high  powers  in  a  steady  air, 
may  be  satisfactory  to  the  observer  who  is  familiar  with  them  un- 
der other  circumstances,  but  such  observations  would  have  no  value 
in  aiding  others  to  form  an  opinion  of  how  much  could  really  be 
seen.  There  is  but  one  class  of  objects  by  which  the  atmospheric 
conditions  of  a  locality,  or  the  perfection  of  an  object  glass  or 
mirror,  can  be  thoroughly  tested  and  a  record  made.  This  is  by 
discovering,  observing,  and  measuring  difficult  double  stars,  and 
particularly  those  which  are  less  than  the  theoretical  separating 
power  of  the  instrument,  and  those  which  are  both  close  and  un- 
equal. It  is  well  known  what  a  first  class  refractor  of  any  given 


28  HISTORY   OF  THE  LICK   OBSERVATORY. 

aperture  will  do  in  dealing  with  test  objects.  The  catalogues  fur- 
nish a  great  variety  of  stars  suitable  for  this  purpose,  many  of 
which  I  have  examined  and  measured,  as  the  accompanying  obser- 
vations show.  The  value  of  this  work,  as  bearing  upon  the  question 
at  issue,  will  be  best  appreciated  by  those  who  have  had  practical 
experience  in  this  class  of  astronomical  work. 

I  prepared  a  series  of  cardboard  discs,  with  apertures  from  one 
inch  up  to  the  full  aperture  of  the  object  glass,  and  observed  a 
great  many  familiar  objects,  cutting  down  the  light  until  the  small 
star  was  just  distinctly  visible.  Most  of  these  stars  have  been  used 
for  a  similar  purpose  elsewhere,  and  are  well  known  to  astronomers 
as  well  as  to  amateurs  having  the  smallest  portable  instruments. 
The  advantage  of  these  tests  is,  that  the  observations  can  be  re- 
peated by  any  one,  at  any  place,  with  a  large  or  small  telescope. 
Some  of  these  observations  are  remarkable,  considering  the  difficulty 
of  the  objects,  with  much  larger  apertures,  in  other  localities.  1 
am  confident  that  Mu  Herculis,  Alpha  Capricorni,  etc,,  have  never 
been  seen  before  with  so  small  an  object  glass.  They  have  always 
been  beyond  the  reach  of  this  instrument  in  Chicago. 

NEW  DOUBLE  STARS. 

It  is  evident  that  the  most  satisfactory  and  conclusive  proof  of 
the  quality  and  kind  of  seeing  would  be  furnished  by  the  discovery 
of  new  stars.  Whatever  advantage  might  be  supposed  to  exist  in 
the  observation  of  familiar  objects,  from  knowing  where  to  look  for 
a  difficult  star,  would  certainly  be  wanting  in  discovering  and  fix- 
ing the  position  and  distance  of  a  star,  never  before  seen.  Partly 
for  this  reason,  I  gave  some  time  to  an  examination  of  the  heavens 
for  the  detection  of  new  double-star  systems,  and  particularly  to 
that  portion  lying  more  than  30°  or  35°  south  of  the  celestial  equator. 
Most  of  the  time  was  spent  in  the  southern  zones,  as  that  to  me 
was  a  new  heavens,  and  the  most  promising  field  for  such  research. 
The  result  is  very  gratifying,  and  furnishes  some  of  the  most  inter- 
esting discoveries,  and  among  the  prominent  and  well  known  stars, 
and  at  the  same  time  shows  the  wonderful  purity  and  steadiness  of 
the  air  almost  down  to  the  very  horizon.  It  might  be  supposed  there 
would  be  little  left  to  do,  at  least  for  a  small  instrument,  among  the 
naked -eye  stars,  even  in  the  southern  hemisphere,  and  particularly 
when  at  Mt.  Hamilton  these  stars  had  to  be  observed  within  a  few 
degrees  of  the  horizon.  Sir  JOHN  HERSCHEL  had  traveled  over  this 
whole  field  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  where  these  stars  are  nearly 
overhead,  with  his  "twenty-foot  reflector,"  giving  nearly  ten  times 
the  light  of  the  six-inch  telescope  I  was  using  on  Mt.  Hamilton;  and 
one  not  familiar  with  what  large  reflecting  telescopes  have  done,  and 
have  failed  to  do,  might  suppose  that  but  little  would  be  left  for  dis- 
covery, at  least  among  the  large  stars.  So  far  from  this  being  the 
case,  the  fact  is  that  almost  nothing  has  been  done  in  this  great 


HISTORY  OF  THE  LICK  OBSERVATORY.  29 

department  of  discovery  and  work,  by  any  observer  in  the  southern 
hemisphere.  It  is  a  work  which  requires  too  perfect  an  instrument 
to  be  successfully  undertaken  by  any  of  the  large  reflecting  teles- 
copes heretofore  used.  The  catalogues  of  HERSCHEL  contain  very- 
few  first  class  objects,  the  great  proportion  being  very  wide,  insigni- 
ficant, and  easy  pairs,  suitable  as  tests  only  for  the  smallest  refrac- 
tors. Fortunately,  a  zone  of  15°  or  20°,  too  far  south  for  any  other 
American  or  European  observatory,  can  be  observed  at  Mt.  Hamil- 
ton, and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  work  now  commenced  will  not 
be  neglected  when  the  new  observatory  is  established.  In  the 
mean  time  these  stars  will  remain  for  the  most  part  unobserved, 
since  but  very  few  of  them  can  be  sufficiently  well  seen  at  any  of 
the  northern  observatories. 

The  small  refractor  on  Mt.  Hamilton  has  divided  again  the  prin- 
cipal components  of  several  wide  pairs  previously  catalogued  by 
HERSCHEL,  STRUVE  and  SOUTH,  transforming  a  wide  pair  into  a 
close  triple. 

In  regard  to  the  northern  new  stars,  it  is  sufficient  to  say  that 
some  of  them  are  excessively  difficult,  and  make  excellent  tests  for 
the  condition  of  the  air.  Good  weather  and  good  definition  are  as 
necessary  in  observing  such  stars  with  a  large  instrument  as  a  small 
one.  After  my  return  to  Chicago  I  examined  one  of  the  new  stars 
I  had  discovered  at  Mt.  Hamilton  with  the  six -inch  telescope  by 
means  of  the  18|-inch  refractor  of  the  Dearborn  Observatory,  and 
the  first  night  nothing  could  be  done  with  it.  The  large  star  did 
not  appear  to  be  double  at  all.  Subsequently,  when  the  air  was 
better,  it  was  well  seen  and  measured  carefully  on  two  occasions. 

Besides  the  new  double  stars  discovered,  a  great  many  known 
double  stars  were  picked  up  independently,  both  north  and  south. 
In  fact,  most  of  the  closer  stars  in  the  southern  zone,  previously 
observed  by  Herschel  and  others  down  to — 45°  decl. ,  were  found 
on  different  occasions. 

These  stars  will  show,  better  than  anything  else  can,  what  may 
be  done  at  Mt.  Hamilton.  Remembering  that  they  were  discovered 
with  what,  in  these  days  of  great  refractors,  would  be  considered 
as  a  very  inferior  instrument  in  point  of  size,  we  may  form  some 
conception  of  what  might  be  done  with  an  instrument  of  the  power 
of  that  at  the  Naval  Observatory  at  Washington  (26  inches),  hav- 
ing a  light  power  about  nineteen  times  as  great,  or  with  the  Pulkowa 
glass  (30  inches)  of  twenty-five  times  the  power. 

Daylight  Observations :  A  great  many  objects  were  examined 
by  daylight,  but  the  air,  during  the  greater  part  of  the  day  at  least, 
appears  to  be  no  steadier  than  would  ordinarily  be  found  elsewhere. 
The  heat  of  the  sun  during  the  warmer  part  of  the  season  produces 
a  disturbance  of  the  air  which  disappears  very  soon  after  sunset. 
The  sun,  planets  and  double  stars  were  frequently  looked  at  and 
some  measures  of  double  stars  made.  Double  stars  like  Epsilon 


30  HISTORY  OF  THE  LICK   OBSERVATORY. 

Bootis  and  Epsilon  Lyrce,  could  be  very  easily  seen.  The  fifth  and  sixth 
stars  of  the  trapezium  of  Ori<m  were  beautifully  seen  in  broad  day- 
light just  before  sunrise.  The  sixth  star  was  measured  on  this  oc- 
casion without  artificial  illumination,  and  continued  to  remain  visible 
as  long  as  it  was  looked  at,  which  was  up  to  within  seven  minutes  of 
the  actual  appearance  of  the  sun  above  the  horizon.  Venus  was 
readily  seen  with  the  naked  eye  at  any  hour  of  the  day,  and  easily 
found  without  an  instrument  to  indicate  the  place. 

Conclusions  :  So  far  as  one  may  judge  from  the  time  during  which 
these  observations  were  made,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  Mt. 
Hamilton  offers  advantages  superior  to  those  found  at  any  point 
where  a  permanent  observatory  has  been  established.  The  re- 
markable steadiness  of  the  air,  and  the  continued  succession  of 
nights  of  almost  perfect  definition,  are  conditions  not  to  be  hoped 
for  in  any  place  with  which  I  am  acquainted,  and,  judging  from 
the  published  reports  of  the  various  observatories,  are  not  to  be 
met  with  elsewhere.  The  low  altitude  at  which  observations  can. 
be  made  is  a  matter  of  no  small  importance,  particularly  in  connec- 
tion with  the  portion  of  the  southern  sky  not  ordinarily  accessible 
to  observatories  in  the  northern  hemisphere.  The  ease  with  which 
difficult  objects  can  be  seen  almost  down  to  the  horizon  will  be  ap- 
parent from  the  southern  declination  of  many  of  the  new  double 
stars.  Close  pairs  can  be  observed  at  least  down  to  43  degrees 
south  declination.  The  permanent  steadiness  of  the  air  during  the 
whole  night  will  greatly  increase  the  amount  of  telescopic  work 
over  what  could  ordinarily  be  done  in  good  nights  in  most  places. 
An  examination  of  my  observations  at  Chicago  during  the  summer 
of  the  present  year  shows  that  the  good  seeing  very  rarely  con- 
tinued the  whole  night,  even  when  it  remained  clear.  In  many 
instances  the  conditions  favorable  for  the  observation  of  the  most 
difficult  objects  would  only  last  an  hour  or  two,  sometimes  occurring 
in  the  first  part  of  the  night  and  sometimes  not  commencing  until 
after  midnight.  On  Mt.  Hamilton  there  is  but  little  variation  of 
any  kind  during  the  dry  season.  Each  day  was  very  much  like 
every  other  day,  and  as  already  shown,  the  same  statement  would 
apply  equally  well  to  the  nights.  Apparently  there  is  but  little  to 
be  feared  from  the  ocean  fogs,  as  they  seldom  reach  this  elevation. 
Nearly  every  night,  commencing  at  or  soon  after  sunset,  this  fog 
comes  in  from  the  Pacific  at  the  Golden  Gate  on  the  north  and  the  bay 
of  Monterey  on  the  south,  and  covers  the  whole  valley  between 
the  base  of  Mt.  Hamilton  and  the  Coast  Range  with  a  dense  mass 
of  vapor,  resembling,  when  seen  from  above,  a  great  white  sea,  the 
tops  of  the  lower  hills  standing  up  through  it  like  islands.  Ordi- 
narily it  is  perhaps  2,000  feet  lower  than  the  summit  of  Mt.  Ham- 
ilton. It  does  not  appear  to  have  any  effect  on  the  seeing  so  long 
as  it  is  below  the  summit. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  LICK  OBSERVATORY.  31 

What  has  been  said  about  the  advantages  of  Mt.  Hamilton  for 
astronomical  purposes  is,  of  course,  based  upon  what  was  seen 
during  the  time  spent  on  the  mountain.  This  was  my  first  visit  to 
the  Pacific  Coast,  and  hence  I  have  no  personal  knowledge  concern- 
ing other  seasons  of  the  year.  From  inquiries  in  various  quarters 
I  am  satisfied  there  was  nothing  unusual  about  this  season,  and 
there  seems  to  be  every  reason  for  supposing,  as  the  same  cloudless 
sky  and  dry  air  prevails  from  about  March  until  the  commence- 
ment of  the  rainy  season,  near  the  close  of  the  year,  that  the  whole 
of  this  interval  would  be  equally  favorable  for  the  use  of  the  tele- 
scope. Even  if  nothing  could  be  done  in  the  winter  time  and  the 
nights  were  as  favorable  throughout  the  dry  season  as  I  found  them, 
Mt.  Hamilton  would  be  much  more  desirable,  and  more  could  be 
accomplished  there  with  a  large  telescope  than  at  any  other  place 
where  an  observatory  has  yet  been  established.  So  far  as  there 
have  been  opportunities  for  judging,  it  is  obviously  an  appropriate 
place  for  erecting  and  maintaining  the  telescope  to  be  constructed 
under  the  LICK  Deed  of  Trust,  and  required  to  be  'superior  to  and 
more  powerful  than  any  telescope  ever  yet  made. '  " 

In  1879  Capt.  FLOYD  and  Mr.  FRASER  visited  Prof essor  NEWCOMB 
and  myself  in  Washington  and  the  plans  for  the  Observatory  were 
drawn.  These  are  practically  the  same  as  those  discussed  in  1874. 

The  plans  have  proved  to  be  entirely  adequate  and  have  been 
closely  followed  in  most  essential  respects.  Improvements  have 
been  made  wherever  it  was  possible,  and  many  ingenious  devices 
and  details  have  been  worked  out  by  Capt.  FLOYD  or  by  Mr. 
FRASER,  or  by  others  under  their  direction.  The  plans  for  the 
buildings  will  be  best  understood  by  consulting  the  cut  on  page  32. 


Q 

I 


o 

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1-2 


c 
td 


. 


(32* 


V.    DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  BUILDINGS. 


At  the  south  end  of  the  observatory  is  the  seventy -five-foot  dome. 
At  the  north  end  is  the  twenty-five -foot  dome.  They  are  connected 
by  a  hall,  191  feet  in  length.  On  the  west  is  a  series  of  study  and 
work  rooms.  For  the  next  twenty  years  there  will  be  space  in  these 
rooms  and  in  the  hall  for  all  the  work  of  the  observatory.  When  it 
is  necessary  a  second  row  of  rooms  can  be  built  on  the  east  side  of 
the  hall.  Any  possible  expansion  of  the  Observatory  can  be 
provided  for  by  such  additional  rooms,  and  by  separate  detached 
observing  rooms  in  the  immediate  vicinity.  The  visitor  should 
notice  the  fine  set  of  astronomical  drawings  (by  M.  TROUVELOT,  of 
Paris)  which  hang  along  this  hall.  They  have  been  kindly  pre- 
sented to  the  Observatory  by  the  Hon.  JOHN  R.  JARBOE,  of  San 
Fraacisco,  and  serve  to  give  a  very  good  general  idea  of  the  celes- 
tial objects  depicted. 

The  building  is  of  brick,  painted.  It  has  a  slate  roof.  Tin  was 
found  to  be  better  and  has  been  used  for  the  other  buildings. 
Although  the  building  is  one  story  (with  a  shallow  air  space  be- 
neath), there  is  a  great  deal  of  floor  room  on  the  principal  floor  and 
in  the  low  attic.  The  roof  is  also  utilized  by  platforms  and  galleries. 

THE   DOME   FOR  THE  THIRTY-SIX-INCH   REFRACTOR. 

The  computations  for  the  strength  of  the  arches  and  of  the  walls 
of  this  dome  were  made  by  Prof.  BULL,  of  Madison,  Wis.,  in  1885, 
and  forwarded  to  the  Lick  Trustees.  The  contract  for  the  dome 
proper  was  awarded  to  the  Union  Iron  Works  of  San  Francisco,  in 
1886,  and  the  dome  was  finished  in  place  in  October,  1887.  The 
details  of  plans  were  thoroughly  worked  out  by  Mr.  DICKIE,  of  the 
Union  Iron  Works,  and  by  Mr.  FRASER.  No  adequate  notion  of 
the  design  can  be  had  without  wood  cuts  which  I  have  no  way  of 
producing  here.  It  may  suffice  to  say  that  the  outside  diameter  is 
75  feet  4  inches  ;  the  inside  71  feet.  The  dome  stands  on  a  smooth 
cylindric  wall  of  brick  3  feet  2  inches  thick  at  base,  2  feet  3  inches 
at  the  top.  This  wall  has  few  openings  in  it. 

The  original  design  of  the  brick  cylinder,  drawn  by  Prof.  BULL 
from  my  sketches,  is  indicated  on  the  plan  of  the  buildings  accom- 
P-TV- ing  this.  It  provided  for  thorough  ventilation  and  for  rapid 
coo' ing  off  of  the  large  masses  of  brick.  This  is  a  very  important 
point  and  it  is  not  yet  certain  that  it  has  been  secured  by  the 
modification  actually  adopted. 

( 33 )  iii 


34  DESCRIPTION    OF  THE   BUILDINGS. 

The  dome  itself  is  admirably  constructed  by  the  makers.  The 
moving  parts  weigh  199,000  pounds,  and  can  be  set  in  motion  by  a 
pull  of  less  than  200  pounds.  That  is,  one  pound  can  move  1,000. 
The  usual  motive  power  is  obtained  from  a  water  engine  which  will 
rotate  the  dome  360°  in  less  than  nine  minutes.  1  here  are  several 
novel  features  in  the  construction ;  perhaps  the  most  important  is 
the  system  of  expansion  bedplates  for  the  track.  The  diameter  of 
the  dome  changes  one-half  an  inch  in  the  extremes  of  temperature, 
and  the  track  is  given  a  smooth  and  oiled  surface  to  slide  upon  (in 
and  out). 

The  guide  rollers  are  placed  on  the  outside  of  this  dome  instead 
of  on  the  inside,  as  is  usual.  Most  of  the  bearings  of  axles  in  the 
dome  are  anti-friction  (bicycle  ball)  bearings. 

The  shutters  weigh 16,000  Ibs. 

Total  weight  of  cupola 174,000 

"      "  live  ring 25,000 

"  "      "  moving  parts 199,000 

"      "  metal  in  dome 269,000 

"          "      "  elevating  floor 50,000 

Total  number  of  rivets  and  bolts 250,000 

The  observing  slit  is  nine  and  one-half  feet  wide. 

THE   ELEVATING   FLOOR. 

A  very  ingenious  plan  was  proposed  by  Sir  HOWARD  GRUBB  to  the 
Lick  Trustees  for  placing  the  observer  at  a  proper  height  (any  where 
from  zero  to  thirty-seven  feet  above  the  floor).  The  idea  was  to 
have  a  portion  of  the  floor  move  bodily  up  and  down,  like  an  ele- 
vator. This  plan  was  adopted  by  the  Lick  Trustees  and  the  floor 
has  been  built  by  the  Union  Iron  Works.  My  recommendation  to 
the  Lick  Trustees  was  that  the  floor  should  move  at  the  rate  of  four 
feet  per  minute.  The  motive  power  originally  provided  (a  three 
cylinder  8x6  water  engine)  required  ten  times  as  long.  It  is 
probable  that  this  speed  can  be  materially  increased  by  changes 
in  the  hydraulic  arrangements,  which  are  now  being  made  by  the 
Lick  Trustees,  and  if  not  the  motive  power  can  be  replaced  by 
steam  or  electricity,  should  the  present  speed  be  found  materially 
too  slow. 

The  moving  floor  is  61 J  feet  in  diameter  and  weighs  50,000 
pounds,  which  is  nearly  all  counterpoised.  By  suitable  changes  it 
is  certain  that  the  ingenious  plan  of  Sir  HOWARD  GRUBB  can  be 
made  available  and  convenient.  The  speed  actually  required  can 
hardly  be  definitely  fixed  until  a  series  of  observations  has  been 
made. 

THE   DOME   FOR  THE  TWELVE-INCH  EQUATORIAL. 

This  dome  is  a  hemisphere  25  feet  6  inches  in  diameter,  made  of 
thin  plates  of  nickel-plated  copper  secured  to  a  light  frame -work  of 


(35) 


36  DESCRIPTION    OF  THE    BUILDINGS. 

wood.  The  slit  for  observation  is  3  feet  wide  and  extends  beyond 
the  zenith.  The  shutter  is  part  of  a  cylinder  tangent  to  the  sphere 
of  the  dome,  and  was  made  by  WARNER  &  SWASEY  in  1887.  The 
mechanism  for  revolving  the  dome  is  novel,  simple  and  efficent,  and 
is  the  invention  of  Capt.  FLOYD  and  Mr.  FRASER.  An  endless  rope 
passes  around  the  outside  of  the  dome  just  above  the  base-plate, 
over  guiding  pulleys  and  down  around  a  groove  in  a  two-foot  wheel 
placed  in  a  recess  in  the  wall  of  the  room  below.  This  wheel  is 
rotated  by  a  crank  geared  in  the  proportion  of  3  : 1,  and  the  friction 
of  the  rope  on  the  outside  is  sufficient  to  turn  the  dome.  To  give 
the  dome  a  complete  revolution  requires  forty-one  turns  of  the 
crank,  and  it  can  easily  be  effected  in  less  than  two  minutes.  The 
approximate  weight  of  the  dome  is  eight  tons. 

MERIDIAN   CIRCLE   HOUSE. 

The  Meridian  Circle  house,  completed  in  1884,  from  drawings 
made  from  my  plans  by  Professor  COMSTOCK,  is  43  x  38  feet  with  a 
wing  27  x  11  feet  on  the  east.  The  walls  are  double  throughout. 
The  outer  frame  carries  a  louvre  work  of  galvanized  iron,  which 
completely  prevents  the  sun  from  striking  any  part  of  the  building 
proper.  The  inner  walls  are  of  California  redwood,  and  between 
these  and  the  outer  walls  is  an  air-space  twenty-four  inches  wide, 
which  extends  completely  around  the  building.  The  ceiling  is  also 
of  redwood.  It  is  sixteen  feet  above  the  floor,  flat  in  the  centre  of 
the  room  and  arched  over  to  connect  with  the  side  walls.  A 
very  large  air-space  above  the  ceiling  communicates  with  the  room 
itself  and  with  the  air-spaces  of  the  walls.  On  the  west  the  rooms 
open  into  a  ventilating  tower  two  stories  in  height,  which  also 
adjoins  and  is  connected  with  the  house  for  the  meridian  transit 
instrument,  which  lies  still  further  to  the  west.  The  design  of 
this  construction  is  to  keep  the  temperature  of  the  two  houses 
and  of  their  air-spaces  precisely  the  same  as  that  of  the  external 
air,  and  it  is  probable  that  this  object  has  been  practically  attained. 
The  upper  room  of  the  ventilating  tower  ought  to  furnish  an  admir- 
able exposure  for  meteorological  instruments. 

The  wing  on  the  east  side  projects  eleven  feet  from  the  main 
building,  and  contains  an  office  room  for  the  observer  and  an  alcove 
to  receive  the  glass  house  which  protects  the  instrument  when  not 
in  use.  The  slit  for  observation  is  3  feet  4  inches  wide.  At  the  north 
and  south  it  is  closed  by  double  shutters  20  feet  high,  and  overhead 
by  four  shutters,  each  25  feet  long  and  2  feet  wide,  hinged  at  the 
side  of  the  slit  and  opening  outward.  These  shutters  were  devised 
by  Mr.  FRASER,  are  perfectly  weathertight  and  very  convenient  in 
use.  They  are  the  best  that  I  have  seen. 

THE  TRANSIT   HOUSE. 

The  Transit  house  adjoins  the  Meridian  Circle  house  on  the  west. 
It  is  built  of  iron  with  a  wooden  lining,  after  the  manner  of  the 


DESCRIPTION   OF  THE   BUILDINGS.  37 

Meridian  Circle  house,  but  the  air-spaces  are  smaller.  The  room 
measures  18  feet  in  an  east  and  west  and  14  feet  in  a  north  and 
south  direction.  The  roof  is  arched,  and  the  central  opening  is 
covered  by  a  curved  shutter,  which  is  controlled  by  levers  inside  on 
the  plan  of  Sir  HOWARD  GRUBB.  Sliding  shutters  on  the  north  and 
south  allow  the  instrument  to  point  to  the  northern  horizon  and  to 
the  object  glass  of  the  photoheliograph  which  serves  as  a  south 
collimating  lens. 

PHOTOGRAPHIC  LABORATORY. 

This  is  in  a  small  wooden  house  with  brick  foundation,  16  feet  in 
an  east  and  west  and  12  feet  in  a  north  and  south  direction,  situated 
60  feet  s  outh  of  the  Transit  house.  The  tube  of  the  photoheliograph 
telescope  enters  the  building  2^  feet  to  the  east  of  the  center.  The 
laboratory  is  13x12  feet.  It  is  lighted  by  two  windows,  one  of 
which  is  of  red  glass,  in  the  west  end.  Both  are  provided  with 
shutters.  On  the  north  is  the  brick  pier  which  supports  the  plate- 
holder  of  the  photoheliograph.  A  room  on  the  second  floor  of 
the  main  building  next  to  the  seventy-five-foot  dome  is  also  fitted 
for  photography. 

THE  DWELLING-HOUSES. 

The  astronomers'  dwelling  consists  of  a  brick  building  63  x  60  feet 
and  three  stories  high,  situated  on  a  level  bench  of  ground  excavated 
for  the  purpose  to  the  eastward  of  the  observatory  and  about  22  feet 
below  the  summit.  A  long  flight  of  steps  leads  up  from  the  plateau 
on  which  the  cottages  are  situated  to  the  principal  entrance. 

The  building  contains  two  distinct  and  precisely  similar  dwellings, 
which,  however,  may  be  made  to  communicate  when  desirable  by 
doors  in  the  partitions.  The  floors  of  the  third  story  and  the  sum- 
mit plateau  are  on  the  same  level,  and  are  connected  by  a  bridge, 
which  gives  easy  access  to  the  observatory. 

SHOPS,    BARNS,    AND   COTTAGES   FOR  ASTRONOMERS   AND   WORKMEN. 

The  cottages  are  situated  on  the  saddle  of  the  mountain  connect- 
ing the  Observatory  peak  and  Mt.  Tycho,  where  a  level  place  was 
cleared  for  the  purpose.  At  the  foot  of  the  flight  of  steps  leading 
up  to  the  astronomers'  residence  is  a  large  double  cottage  containing 
eleven  rooms,  formerly  occupied  by  the  superintendent.  One  large 
cottage  and  two  smaller  ones  are  but  a  short  distance  off,  with  sheds 
for  poultry,  etc.  A  little  further  along  is  a  large  barn  with  stables, 
and  north  of  this  a  long,  low  house  which  has  been  used  by 
workmen. 

On  the  observatory  plateau,  earb  of  the  main  building  is  a  low 
brick  building  containing  a  carpenter  shop  and  separate  rooms  for 
oil,  paints,  a  olacksmith  s  forge,  etc. 


s     w 


(38) 


DESCRIPTION   OF  THE  BUILDINGS.  39 

THE  WATER-SUPPLY. 

The  principal  source  of  water  is  a  spring,  (Aquarius),  situated  on  the 
southern  slope  of  Mt.  Galileo,  about  f  of  a  mile  from  the  observatory. 
A  reservoir  holding  27,000  gallons  collects  the  water,  which  is  then 
forced  by  a  steam  pump  through  a  2-inch  pipe  f  mile  long  into 
the  reservoir  on  Mt.  Kepler,  388  feet  above  the  spring.  Steam  is 
supplied  to  the  pump  from  a  20  horse-power  boiler,  for  the  trans- 
portation of  which  a  road  had  to  be  cut  from  the  observatory  in  the 
side  of  the  mountain.  The  reservoir  on  Kepler  is  built  of  brick  and 
cement,  and  has  a  capacity  of  85,000  gallons.  Pipes  lead  from  ifc 
to  supply  the  buildings  of  the  workmen,  the  astronomers'  dwelling 
and  the  observatory.  The  head  of  water  at  the  level  of  the  plateau 
is  48  feet.  A  l|-inch  pipe  also  leads  to  a  reservoir  on  Huyghens' 
Peak,  an  elevation  near  the  workmen's  quarters.  This  reservoir  13 
built  in  the  same  manner  as  the  first,  and  has  a  capacity  of  65,000 
gallons.  It  is  below  the  level  of  the  buildings  on  the  summit,  and 
in  the  winter  and  spring  is  kept  full  of  rainwater  collected  by  their 
slate  roofs.  For  this  purpose  a  2-inch  pipe  was  laid  deep  in  the 
ground  before  blasting  was  begun  on  the  mountain.  As  the  carry- 
ing capacity  of  this  pipe  is  not  sufficient  during  very  heavy  rains,  a 
reservoir  10x6x4  feet,  in  which  the  surplus  of  water  can  accumulate, 
is  provided  under  the  main  building.  In  the  summer  or  dry  season, 
the  reservoir  on  Huyghens'  Peak  is  filled  from  the  main  one  on  Kepler 
by  means  of  the  l|-inch  pipe  above  mentioned.  In  addition  to  these 
reservoirs  four  wooden  tanks,  two  of  5,000  gallons  each,  one  of 
2,000  gallons  and  one  of  1,000,  collect  the  rainwater  from  the  roof 
of  the  Meridian  Circle  House. 

During  the  summer  of  1886  a  third  reservoir,  to  contain  about 
30,000  gallons,  was  built  on  Mt.  Copernicus,  171  feet  above  the 
observatory  floor  and  4,000  feet  distant.  This  can  be  filled  either 
directly  by  the  steam-pump  at  the  springs,  or  by  a  windmill -pump 
erected  on  the  Huyghens'  Peak  reservoir.  The  water  from  this 
source  serves  to  turn  the  large  dome  and  to  elevate  its  lifting-floor. 
It  is  also  an  important  safeguard  against  fire.  Until  this  water 
supply  was  developed  all  our  water  had  to  be  hauled  from  Smith 
Creek  2,000  feet  below  the  summit  and  7  miles  distant. 


(40) 


VI.    DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  ASTRONOMICAL 
INSTRUMENTS. 


THE  THIRTY-SIX-INCH  TELESCOPE. 

There  is  no  way  for  the  visitor  to  obtain  any  adequate  idea  of 
the  great  size  and  of  the  mechanical  perfection  of  the  large  telescope 
except  by  seeing  it  and  by  verbal  explanation.  Therefore  I  simply 
give  below  a  few  of  the  dry  statistics,  and  leave  the  visitor  to  form 
hia  own  impression  from  an  actual  view.  It  is  far  more  difficult  to 
convey  in  untechnical  language  any  idea  of  its  optical  superiority  over 
all  other  instruments.  In  section  VIII  following  this,  I  have  given 
a  short  sketch  of  the  development  of  the  telescope  as  a  seeing 
instrument,  and  in  section  X  some  account  of  its  use  in  Astronomi- 
cal Photography ;  these  sections  may  therefore  be  referred  to  in  this 
connection.  It  is  very  difficult  also  to  obtain  any  satisfactory  picture 
of  this  instrument.  In  short,  it  is  necessary  to  see  the  telescope 
itself  to  know  what  it  is  like. 

The  visual  objective  is  36  inches  clear  aperture  and  672  inches 
focus.  One  second  at  the  focus  is  therefore  about  To3oir  °f  an  inch. 
The  image  of  the  sun  at  the  focus  is  about  6  inches  in  diameter.  The 
photographic  lens  is  33  inches  in  aperture  and  about  550  inches  focus. 
The  photographic  image  of  the  sun  is  therefore  5^  inches  in 
diameter.  The  history  of  the  objective  is  as  follows:  The  flint  disc 
was  obtained  from  FEIL,  in  Paris,  in  April,  1882.  After  nineteen 
failures,  the  crown  was  successfully  cast  in  September,  1885.  In  1886 
a  third  (photographic)  crown  disc  was  purchased  also  from  FEIL, 
which  was  cast  at  the  same  time  with  the  successful  crown  disc  for 
the  visual  objective ;  it  broke  in  the  hands  of  the  Clarks  in  1886. 
In  1887,  Mr.  ALVAN  G.  CLARK  went  to  Paris  and  procured  the 
crown  glass  from  FEIL,  which  has  been  worked  into  a  third  lens. 

The  visual  objective  was  completed  by  the  CLARKS  and  delivered 
in  1886,  so  that  it  has  waited  for  a  year  for  the  dome  and  hydraulic 
apparatus.  Those  who  are  interested  in  the  methods  of  manu- 
facture of  object-glasses  will  find  an  excellent  popular  account  in 
the  Scientific  American  for  Sept.  24,  1887.  The  mounting  is  by 
WARNER  and  SWASE Y  and  all  the  details  of  its  construction  have 
been  worked  out  by  them  except  those  of  the  eye-end,  which  were 
drawn  by  Professor  BULL  of  Madison,  from  sketches  by  Professor 
LANGLEY  and  myself.  The  tube  is  nearly  cylindric  in  shape,  with  a 
suitable  port  for  access  to  the  photographic  focus.  The  counterpoising 
is  arranged  so  that  the  photographic  lens  can  be  put  on  and  taken  off 
(41) 


42  DESCRIPTION   OF  THE  ASTRONOMICAL   INSTRUMENTS. 

safely  and  quickly.  There  are  three  regular  finders,  6,  4  and  3 
inches  in  aperture.  In  addition  to  these,  the  12-inch  equatorial  can 
be  quickly  attached  as  a  pointer  for  photographic  work  should  the 
controlled  driving  clock  not  prove  satisfactory. 

The  following  mechanical  movements  are  provided: 

An  observer  at  the  eye -end  can 

1.  Clamp  in  declination. 

2.  Give  slow  motion  in  declination. 

3.  Read  the  declination  circle  (two  verniers). 

4.  Clamp  in  right  ascension. 

5.  Stop  the  clock. 

6.  Give  slow  motion  in  right  ascension. 

7.  Read  right  ascension  circle  (one  microscope). 

An  assistant  on  cither  side  of  the  balcony  below  the  axes  can 

8.  Clamp  in  declination. 

9.  Give  rapid  motion  in  decimation. 

10.  Give  slow  motion  in  declination. 

11.  Give  quick  motion  in  right  ascension. 

12.  Give  slow  motion  in  right  ascension. 

13.  Clamp  in  right  ascension. 

14.  Stop  or  start  the  driving  clock. 

15.  Read  the  right  ascension  circle  (two  microscopes). 

16.  Read  a  dial  showing  the  nearest  quarter  degree  of  declin- 
ation. 

The  original  design  of  the  makers  allowed  everything  which  is 
now  done  by  an  assistant  on  the  balcony  to  be  done  by  a  person  on 
the  floor.  The  distance  from  the  base  of  the  iron  pier  to  the  center  of 
motion  is  37  feet  10  inches  exactly,  and  to  the  lowest  position  of  the 
(movable)  floor  is  35  feet  11  inches,  leaving  a  clearance  of  7  feet  10 
inches  for  the  eye-piece,  or  of  about  3  feet  7  inches  for  the  star  spectro- 
scope. The  eye-end  is  so  arranged  that  the  micrometer  can  be  quickly 
removed,  and  two  steel  bars  inserted  in  bearing;*.  These  bearings 
are  part  of  a  jacket  around  the  eye-end.  This  jacket  revolves 
smoothly  360°  in  position-angle.  Spectroscopes,  photometers,  en- 
larging cameras,  etc.,  can  be  readily  attached  to  these  bars.  In 
this  way  this  telescope  mounting  is  made  entirely  convenient  for 
micrometric,  photographic  or  spectroscopic  work.  It  is,  in  fact, 
three  mountings  in  one. 

TWELVE-INCH  REFRACTOR  BY  ALVAN  CLARK  &  SONS. 

The  objective  and  tube  of  this  instrument  were  originally  made 
by  ALVAN  CLARK  &  SONS  for  DR.  HENRY  DRAPER,  and  were  mounted 
in  his  private  observatory  at  Hastings-on-the-Hudson. 

The  objective  is  of  the  very  finest  quality.  It  was  disposed  of  by 
DR.  DRAPER  in  1879,  in  order  that  he  might  replace  it  by  the  photo- 
graphic objective  of  11  inches  aperture,  now  at  Harvard  College 
Observatory.  The  objective  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Messrs.  CLARK 


INTERIOR  OF  THE   NORTH    DOME— THE    TWELVE-INCH    TELESCOPE 

(FROM   "THE   CENTURY"  FOR  MAY,  1886) 

Objective  and  Mounting  by  Alvan  Clark  &  Sons.    (Magnifying  powers  from 
100  to  1000  diameters) 


44  DESCRIPTION   OF  THE  ASTRONOMICAL   INSTRUMENTS. 

until  September,  1880,  during  which  time  a  substantial  mounting 
was  fitted  to  it.  It  was  mounted  at  the  Lick  Observatory  in 
October,  1881. 

FOUR-INCH  COMET-SEEKER   BY  ALVAN   CLARK  &   SONS. 

The  objective  has  an  aperture  of  four  inches  and  a  focal  length 
of  about  thirty-three  inches.  The  rays  from  the  objective  fall  on  a 
reflecting  prism  midway  in  the  tube  and  are  bent  into  a  horizontal 
plane.  The  observer  has  only  to  move  his  eye  in  azimuth  while  the 
telescope  tube  is  moved  in  altitude,  in  order  to  cover  the  whole  sky. 

PHOTOHELIOGRAPH   BY  ALVAN   CLARK   &   SONS. 

The  photoheliograph  is  mounted  due  south  of  the  Transit  house. 
The  transit  instrument  serves  to  determine  the  position  of  the  axis 
of  the  photoheliograph  ;  and  conversely  the  photoheliograph  is  used 
as  a  south  collimator  for  the  transit. 

It  is  essentially  of  the  same  form  as  those  employed  in  the  U.  S. 
Transit  of  Venus  expeditions  of  1874  and  1882  which  have  been 
described  (with  plates)  in  the  "American  Observations  of  the 
Transit  of  Venus,  1874,  Part  I." 

It  was  used  by  Capt.  FLOYD  and  Professor  TODD  to  observe  the 
transit  of  Venus  in  1882.  (See  the  cut  previously  given  in  Section  V.) 

THE  SIX-AND-ONE-HALF-INCH   EQUATORIAL. 

(Objective  by  A.  CLARK  &  SONS;  mounting  by  WARNER  &  SWASEY.) 
In  ordering  the  Repsold  Meridian  Circle  it  was  stipulated  that 
the  three  objectives  of  equal  size  which  belonged  respectively  to  the 
circle  and  t  •>  the  two  collimators,  should  be  made  by  ALVAN  CLARK 
&  SONS.  The  north  collimator  is  to  remain  always  in  position.  The 
south  collimator  will  be  used  in  connection  with  it  for  determination 
of  the  horizontal  flexure  by  the  method  of  opposite  collimators,  but 
can  be  replaced  for  determinations  of  collimatiou  by  the  south  mire, 
about  eighty  feet  distant. 

Its  objective  thus  becomes  available  for  other  purposes,  and 
Messrs.  WARNER  &  SWASEY  have  provided  a  portable  mounting  for 
this  objective.  It  is  the  work  of  a  few  minutes  to  detach  the  colli- 
mator objective  in  its  cell  and  to  adapt  it  to  the  tube  of  the  six-inch 
mounting.  The  cast  iron  column  of  this  mounting  is  hollow  and 
contains  the  driving  clock  and  weights.  It  can  be  taken  apart  just 
below  the  clock  for  greater  convenience  in  transportation  when  the 
instrument  is  used  on  eclipse  or  other  astronomical  expeditions. 

The  driving  clock  has  several  features  of  interest.  The  double 
conical  pendulum  is  so  hung  that  its  period  of  revolution  is  very 
nearly  independent  of  the  height  of  the  balls,  which  always  assume 
the  position  proper  to  their  velocity  of  rotation,  although  the 
retarding  friction  increases  continually  as  the  balls  diverge.  The 
performance  of  this  clock  is  very  satisfactory.  A  similar  clock, 


WARNER  &  SWASEY'S    SIX  AND   ONE-HALF   INCH 

PORTABLE   EQUATORIAL 
Objective  by  ALVAN  CLARK  &  SONS 

y 

(45) 


46  DESCRIPTION   OF  THE  ASTRONOMICAL   INSTRUMENTS. 

with  the  addition  of  an  electric  control,  is  provided  for  the  36-inch 
refractor.  This  telescope  is  mounted  in  a  small  dome  south  of  the 
Meridian  Circle  House,  and  serves  many  useful  purposes. 

THE  SIX-AND-ONE-HALF-INCH  REPSOLD  MERIDIAN    CIRCLE. 

(Object  Glass  by  ALVAN  CLARK  &  SONS.) 

This  instrument  was  ordered  in  1882  and  delivered  in  1884. 
Previous  to  its  dispatch  to  America  it  was  thoroughly  inspected  by 
Prof.  AUWERS  and  by  Prof.  KRUEGER  who  were  kind  enough  to  do 
this  at  the  request  of  the  Lick  Trustees.  In  a  letter  of  May  6, 
1884,  Professors  AUWERS  and  KRUEGER  say  that :  "The  Meridian 
Circle  ordered  of  the  Messrs.  REPSOLD  is  in  its  construction  in  every 
way  suited  to  be  the  chief  instrument  in  an  observatory  of  the  first 
class."  Its  uses  are  described  in  section  VJJ,  following. 

FOUR-INCH       TRANSIT      AND       ZENITH       TELESCOPE,      COMBINED,      BY 
FAUTH  &  CO. 

This  instrument  was  ordered,  on  the  recommendation  of  Pro- 
fessor NEWCOMB,  in  1880,  and  delivered  in  1881.  The  aperture  is 
4. 1  inches.  It  is  essentially  of  the  same  pattern  as  the  Meridian 
Circle  of  the  School  of  Science  at  Princeton,  New  Jersey,  by  the 
same  makers.  It  was  mounted  in  October,  1881,  and  has  since 
served  for  time  determinations.  In  1885  it  was  remodeled  by  the 
makers.  The  objective  (which  is  a  very  excellent  one,  by  ALVAN 
CLARK  &  SONS)  received  a  new  cell.  The  eye-end  was  changed  so 
that  the  micrometer  can  be  used  either  in  B.  A.  or  Z.  D.  A  sensitive 
level  was  added.  In  this  way  the  instrument  becomes  a  zenith  tele- 
scope also,  and  can  be  used  for  an  independent  determination  of  the 
latitude  by  TALCOTT'S  method.  The  piers  were  originally  iron 
frames ;  they  have  been  built  solid  with  brick. 

UNIVERSAL  INSTRUMENT  BY  REPSOLD. 

A  universal  instrument,  by  KEPSOLD,  was  ordered  in  1884  and 
delivered  in  1885.  Its  telescope  tube  is  broken  at  the  middle  where 
a  reflecting  prism  sends  the  rays  through  the  axis  to  the  eye.  Its 
aperture  is 2. 15  inches;  the  horizontal  circle  reads  by  two  micro- 
scopes to  2".  The  vertical  circle  reads  by  two  microscopes  to  2". 
The  circles  are  10  inches  in  diameter.  This  instrument  may  serve 
for  special  investigations  on  the  refraction  ;  and  it  is  a  very  perfect 
geodetic  instrument.  Together  with  the  six-inch  equatorial  and  a 
chronometer  it  constitutes  an  outfit  which  can  be  packed  in  a  few 
hours  and  which  is  very  suitable  for  astronomical  expeditions.  All 
these  instruments  pack  readily  into  boxes  of  convenient  size  and 
shape. 

CLOCKS. 

There  are  two  dead-beat  clocks  by  HOHWU  ;  two  gravity  escape- 
ment clocks  by  C.  FRODSHAM  and  DENT  respectively;  a  mean  time 


(47) 


48  DESCRIPTION   OF  THE  ASTRONOMICAL   INSTRUMENTS. 

clock  for  time-service  work  by  HOWARD  (dead-beat) ;  several 
chronometers  by  NEGUS  and  a  thermometric  chronometer  by  C. 
FRODSHAM.  It  was  originally  intended  to  have  a  fine  clock  in  each 
observing  room,  but  a  set  of  controlled  clocks  (GARDNER'S  pattern) 
has  replaced  the  finer  clocks  which  are  now  kept  in  the  clock  room. 

CHRONOGRAPHS. 

There  is  a  FAUTH  chronograph  in  the  transit  room,  one  in  the 
meridian  circle  room  and  a  WARNER  &  SWASEY  chronograph  in  each 
dome. 

THE    LIBRARY 

It  is  entirely  proper  to  count  the  Library  of  an  observatory  as 
one  of  its  most  important  astronomical  instruments.  For  the  object 
of  all  scientific  activity  is  either  to  learn  new  things  or  to  know  old 
ones  better.  To  do  either  it  is  first  necessary  to  know  what  has 
already  been  learned,  and  a  library  gives  this  essential  information. 
Our  special  library  is  not  as  extensive  as  it  should  be,  but  it  con- 
tains a  selection  of  the  most  important  books — such  as  Treatises  on 
Astronomy  in  general,  on  special  departments,  on  Mathematics, 
Meteorology  and  Physics,  Catalogues  and  Maps  of  Stars,  of  Comets, 
of  Nebulae,  etc.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  Library  may  be  largely 
increased  by  gifts  in  the  future. 

MINOR  INSTRUMENTS. 

The  Messrs.  REPSOLD  have  furnished  the  observatory  with  a  level - 
trier  of  refined  construction.  An  engine  for  measuring  photographs, 
scales,  etc.,  has  been  made  by  STACKPOLE  &  BRO.  from  designs  by 
Professor  HARKNESS.  It  is  similar  to  the  one  constructed  for  the 
U.  S.  Transit  of  Venus  Commission.  For  use  in  connection  with 
the  measuring  engine,  Professor  W.  A.  ROGERS,  of  Harvard  Col- 
lege Observatory,  has  provided  a  standard  bar  20|  inches  long, 
containing  a  half -yard  divided  into  inches  and  tenths,  with  two  in- 
ches at  one  end  minutely  subdivided.  A  delicate  spherometer,  by 
FAUTH  &  Co.,  is  provided,  beside  resistance-coils,  galvanometers, 
a  disc  photometer,  small  spectroscopes,  spare  prisms,  eye-pieces, 
etc.  The  most  important  of  the  minor  instruments  are  the  filar  micro- 
meter for  the  36-inch, by  FAUTH  &  Co.,  and  the  duplex  micrometer, 
by  GRUBB.  The  Lick  Observatory  possesses  a  very  powerful  star 
spectroscope  which  has  been  devised  by  Mr.  KEELER  and  made 
by  J.  A.  BRASHEAR,  of  Pittsburg,  as  an  improved  form  of  the  spec- 
troscope employed  by  Professor  C.  A.  YOUNG  of  Princeton.  Plans  for 
a  large  solar  spectroscope  have  been  worked  out  by  Professor  LANG- 
LEY  and  myself,  but  the  instrument  has  not  been  ordered  as  yet. 

SPECTROSCOPES. 

One  of  the  most  important  attachments  to  the  telescope  is  the 
spectroscope.  The  telescope  forms  the  image  of  a  star  at  its  focus 
and  this  image  can  be  viewed  with  an  eye-piece;  or  it  can  be  photo- 

(iv; 


FOUR-INCH   TRANSIT    INSTRUMENT  AND   ZENITE1 

TELESCOPE,  by  FAUTH  &  Co. 
For  determining  Time  and  Latitude 


(49) 


50  DESCRIPTION   OF   THE  ASTRONOMICAL   INSTRUMENTS. 

graphed  by  means  of  a  sensitive  plate.  The  image  itself  is  a  minute 
brilliant  point,  or  a  very  small  disc  of  light.  If  instead  of  causing  the 
beam  of  light  from  a  star  to  fall  011  the  object  glass  and  to  form  an 
image  at  the  focus,  we  let  it  pass  through  the  objective  and  then 
fall  upon  a  glass  prism  or  prisms  near  the  focus,  we  shall  no  longer 
have  an  image  but  a  colored  ribbon  or  spectrum.  The  star's  light 
is  no  longer  concentrated  into  a  brilliant  disc  but  spread  out  into 
a  spectrum  in  which  the  rays  of  various  colors  are  separately  shown 
in  the  order,  violet,  indigo,  blue,  green,  yellow,  orange,  red.  This 
is  the  order  of  the  colors  of  the  rainbow.  The  larger  the  objective 
of  the  telescope  the  brighter  each  of  the  colors  will  be.  The  36- 
inch  objective  will  allow  us  to  examine  the  spectra  of  very  many 
stars  which  are  too  faint  to  be  examined  with  smaller  glasses. 

A  solid  body  heated  so  intensely  as  to  give  off  light  is  found  by 
experiments  (in  our  laboratories)  to  produce  a  continuous  spec- 
trum; that  is  one  in  which  the  colors  are  evenly  spread  over  the 
entire  spectrum.  A  gaseous  body  so  heated,  ordinarily  gives  a  dis- 
continuous spectrum;  that  is  a  series  of  bright  lines  separated  by 
dark  spaces.  Different  gases  give  more  or  fewer  lines  arranged  in 
different  parts  of  the  spectrum,  but  the  same  gas  always  gives  the 
same  bright  lines  in  the  same  places.  If  the  gas  is  under  enormous 
pressure  (as  in  the  case  of  our  sun)  it  acts  like  a  solid  and  gives  a 
continuous  spectrum. 

Moreover  we  find  from  laboratory  experiments  that  a  gas  will 
absorb  when  relatively  cool  the  same  rays  that  it  emits  when  heated. 
That  is,  if  the  light  from  a  hot  body  passes  through  a  surrounding 
atmosphere  of  gas  before  it  reaches  the  spectroscope,  we  shall  find 
the  resulting  spectrum  to  be  the  continuous  spectrum  of  the  hot 
body,  with  dark  lines  in  the  places  where  the  gaseous  atmosphere 
alone  would  have  showed  bright  lines.  All  this  is  known  from  labor- 
atory experiment  to  be  true  on  the  earth.  It  is  also  true  for  celes- 
tial bodies. 

The  spectrum  of  the  sun  is  continuous  except  for  many  narrow 
fine  dark  lines  crossing  it  which  are  easily  seen  and  measured  in  a 
spectroscope.  They  can  also  be  photographed.  One  group  of  these 
dark  lines  occupies  the  places  of  the  group  of  bright  lines  of 
hydrogen  gas;  another  group  of  dark  lines  corresponds  to  the 
brig] it  lines  of  the  vapor  of  sodium;  another  to  the  lines  of  mag- 
nesium of  iron,  etc.  From  this  it  is  known  that  the  atmosphere 
of  the  sun  contains  the  vapors  of  magnesium,  of  iron,  of  sodium, 
hydrogen  gas,  etc.,  etc. 

The  constituent  vapors  of  the  atmosphere  of  other  stars  or  planets 
can  be  (and  have  been)  investigated  in  the  same  way.  First  the 
dark  lines  actually  existing  in  the  spectrum  are  carefully  measured 
and  mapped.  Then  the  coincidences  between  the  position  of  groups 
of  these  dark  lines  with  the  groups  of  bright  lines  of  vaporized 
metals  are  noted,  and  the  conclusions  drawn. 


WARNER  &  SWA3EY    CHRONOGRAPH 

pen  is  marking  the  beats  of  a  clock  pendulum  (on  the  right  hand  side 
of  the  revolving    barrel  in  the  cut.) 


(51) 


52  DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  ASTRONOMICAL  INSTRUMENTS. 

The  sun  is,  in  this  way,  shown  to  be  a  gaseous  body  under 
enormous  pressure,  surrounded  by  a  highly  complex  atmosphere  of 
vaporized  metals.  Stars  are  suns.  Comets  are  gaseous  bodies 
composed  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  nitrogen  and  in  some  cases  sodium. 
The  Nebulae  are  chiefly  gaseous,  and  their  principal  constituent  gas 
is  nitrogen.  The  spectrum  of  the  moon  is  simply  an  enfeebled  sol- 
ar spectrum  (reflected  from  the  moon's  surf  ace ).  The  planets  show 
a  solar  spectrum  together  with  certain  peculiar  lines,  due  to  the 
selective  absorption  of  their  several  atmospheres.  Ihe  gases  sealed 
up  in  the  cavities  of  meteoric  stones  have  been  examined  in  our 
laboratories  and  these  gases  show  the  characteristic  spectrum  of 
comets.  Here  then  is  a  new  proof  of  the  intimate  connection  of 
meteor-streams  and  comets. 

Some  of  the  principal  uses  of  the  spectroscope  may  be  inferred 
from  what  has  just  been  said.  One  of  its  most  important  applica- 
tions, however,  will  be  to  determine  the  motions  of  the  stars  towards  or 
from  the  earth. 

MOTIONS   OF  STARS  IN   THE  LINE   OF  SIGHT. 

The  observation  of  a  star's  position  —  of  its  longitude  and  latitude 
—  is  really  nothing  but  the  determination  of  the  place  where  the 
line  joining  eye  and  star  pierces  the  celestial  sphere.  If  the  star  is 
moving  directly  towards  or  from  us  this  position  will  remain  un- 
changed, and  the  methods  of  ordinary  astronomy  are  quite  power- 
less to  detect  even  its  existence  and  still  more  to  determine  its 
amount.  But  we  have  in  the  spectroscope  a  means  of  measuring 
,  such  motions  of  stars  in  the  line  of  sight.  The  principle  of  the 
method  is  simple.  Its  application  is  most  difficult.  Every  one  has 
noticed,  in  travelling  upon  an  express  train,  the  sudden  clang  of  the 
bell  of  a  train  passing  in  the  contrary  direction ;  and  how  the  note, 
the  pitch,  of  the  sound  of  this  bell  rapidly  changes  from  high  back  to 
low  again.  Nothing  is  more  certain  than  that  the  bell  has  but  one  es- 
sential pitch.  Why  then  does  it  change  ?  The  engineer  of  the  passing 
train  hears  his  own  bell  giving  always  the  same  note,  and  this  note 
is  determined  by  the  length  of  the  sound  waves  that  reach  his  ear. 
Suppose  them  to  come  at  the  rate  of  about  500  per  second  to  him. 
He  is  always  moving  at  the  same  rate  as  his  bell.  But  to  us  in  the 
other  train  the  case  is  different.  When  the  bell  is  just  opposite  to 
us  500  waves  reach  us  in  a  second ;  when  we  are  approaching  the 
passing  train  more  than  500  come  to  us  (not  only  the  500  sent  out  by 
the  bell,  but  those  others  which  we  meet  by  our  velocity);  as  we 
leave  the  passing  train,  less  than  500  waves  overtake  us  per  second. 
Hence  the  pitch  (the  number  of  waves  per  second)  varies.  The 
same  thing  happens  in  the  case  of  light.  In  the  spectrum  of  a  star 
there  are  certain  dark  lines  whose  presence  is  due  to  hydrogen  in 
the  star's  atmosphere.  If  the  star  is  at  rest  with  respect  to  the 
earth,  these  lines  are  not  displaced  in  its  spectrum ;  a  definite  num- 


EARTHQUAKE  INSTRUMENT  BY  EWING 

During  a  shock  the  pen  remains  steady  and  writes  the  horizontal 
movement  of  the  earth  on  the  (moving;  plate  of  smoked  glass. 


54  DESCRIPTION    OF  THE  ASTRONOMICAL   INSTRUMENTS. 

ber  of  waves  (say  A)  come  to  us  from  the  spectrum  on  both  sides  of 
these  lines  per  second.  If  the  star  is  approaching  us  more  waves 
than  A  reach  us  ;  if  the  star  is  receding  fewer  waves  reach  us.  The 
pitch  of  the  line,  so  to  say,  is  altered ;  and  the  spectroscope  can 
measure  this  change  of  pitch  and  we  can  calculate  how  much  change 
of  pitch  corresponds  to  how  much  velocity  of  approach,  or  recession, 
in  the  star.  When  this  is  done  with  respect  to  the  principal 
stars  the  most  interesting  results  follow:  Vega  is  found  to  be 
approaching  us  at  the  rate  of  45  miles  per  second,  Pollux  is 
approaching  us  at  40  miles,  Arcturus  at  42  miles  etc.,  etc.;  while 
Castor  is  receding  from  us  at  26  miles  per  second,  Requlm  is  receding 
at  20  miles,  Procyon  at  44  miles,  and  so  on.  No  adequate  idea  of 
the  delicacy  of  the  measures  upon  which  these  results  depend  can 
be  briefly  given;  but  delicate  and  difficult  as  they  are  we  have 
evidence  that  they  can  be  trusted.  Independent  observations 
made  at  different  times  at  London,  Greenwich  and  Potsdam  sub- 
stantially agree. 

The  great  telescopes  of  Washington,  Pulkowa,  Princeton,  the 
University  of  Virginia,  Vienna  and  of  the  Lick  Observatory  are 
especially  suited  to  this  research.  Professor  YOUNG  at  Princeton 
has  already  begun  the  work  and  the  LICK  telescope  is  provided 
with  powerful  spectroscopic  appliances  especially  designed  for  the 
purpose. 

METEOROLOGICAL  INSTRUMENTS. 

The  observatory  is  not  primarily  destined  for  a  meteorological 
station.  Its  very  exceptional  situation,  however,  creates  a  respon- 
sibility on  its  part  to  engage  to  some  extent  in  making  meteorolog- 
ical observations,  and  a  suitable  outfit  for  this  purpose  has  been 
obtained. 

A  self -registering  rain-gauge,  a  self -registering  barometer  (DRAP- 
ER'S pattern),  and  a  self -registering  wind-gauge  (U.  S.  S.  S.  pattern) 
are  provided,  together  with  two  mercurial  barometers  (by  GREEN 
and  by  ROACH),  and  a  number  of  standard  thermometers  (by 
GREEN). 

SEISMOMETERS. 

A  complete  set  of  apparatus  for  the  registration  of  earthquake 
movements  has  been  provided  by  the  Cambridge  Scientific  Instru- 
ment Co.,  from  designs  by  Professor  EWING.  The  separate  in- 
struments are  as  follows: 

1.  A  Horizontal  Seismograph,    with   clock  and  driving  plate. 
The  clock  is  started  by  an  electric  contact  at  the  beginning  of  the 
earthqiiake,  and  the  two  rectangular  components  of  the  horizontal 
motion  are  registered  side  by  side  on  a  moving  plate. 

2.  A  Vertical  Motion  Seismograph,   to  register   the    vertical 
movement  of  the  surface  of  the  earth  on  the  same  plate. 


\  8  R  A^p^ 

OF  THE 

IVERSITY 


EARTHQUAKE  INSTRUMENT,  BY  EWING 

The  three  pens  stay  still  during  a  shock,  while  the  glass-plate  moves  with 
the  earth.  The  right  hand  pen  writes  the  earth's  East  and  West  motion,  the 
next  pen,  the  North  and  South  motion  ;  the  left  hand  pen  writes  the  earth's 
vertical  motion. 


56  DESCRIPTION    OF  THE  ASTRONOMICAL  INSTRUMENTS. 

3.  A  Duplex  Pendulum  Seismograph,   to  give  independent  re- 
cords of  the  horizontal  motion  on  a  fixed  plate,  the  pencil  being  free 
to  move  in  all  azimuths. 

4.  A  chronograph  attachment  which  is  set  in  motion  at  the  be- 
ginning of  a  shock,  and  records  the  time  of  its  occurrence  by  one  of 
the  standard  clocks.      It  also  marks  the  clock  seconds  upon  the 
revolving  plate  of  No.  1.     An  instrument  by  Professor  MILNE  de- 
signed to  do  the  same  work  as  No.  3  is  also  provided. 

A  catalogue  of  earthquake  shocks  in  California  from  1769  to  1887 
has  been  compiled,  and  arrangements  looking  to  a  systematic 
registration  of  such  shocks  in  various  parts  of  California  have  been 
made. 

A  copy  of  No.  3  has  been  made  in  a  cheap  form  by  the  California 
Electric  Works  (35  Market  street,  San  Francisco)  and  is  sold  by 
them  for  $15.  I  hope  to  see  many  such  instruments  distributed 
throughout  the  State. 

In  this  description,  which  is  already  too  long,  I  have  been  obliged 
to  pass  over  many  things  of  real  importance,  and  to  merely  mention 
obligations  of  the  observatory  to  individuals,  which  ought  to  be  set 
out  in  full. 

My  object  in  what  is  here  written  has  been  to  show  the  condition 
of  the  observatory  as  regards  its  fitness  for  work,  and  to  outline 
the  history  of  the  successive  steps  by  which  the  desolate  summit  of 
a  mountain  4,300  feet  high  has  been  turned  into  the  site  of  one  of 
the  most  important  observatories  in  the  world.  From  the  inception 
of  the  plan  until  now,  this  history  will  reflect  credit  on  all  who  have 
been  concerned  in  the  work.  MR.  LICK  made  the  most  splendid 
gift  of  the  whole  world  to  a  noble  science.  The  successive  Boards 
of  Trustees  were  composed  of  the  best  citizens  of  the  State.  The 
President  of  the  present  Board  has  given  the  best  ten  years  of  his 
life  to  make  the  observatory  a  success,  and  he  has  been  most  ably 
assisted.  Astronomers  all  over  the  world  have  given  their  time  and 
their  advice  generously  without  compensation.  The  Regents  of  the 
University  have  resolved  to  maintain  the  observatory  in  the  most 
liberal  and  intelligent  manner.  The  press  and  the  public  of 
California  have  been  most  friendly  to  the  undertaking. 


SELF-RECORDING  BAROMETER-fDRAPER'S  PATTERN) 

As  the  barometric  pressure  changes  more  or  less  mercury  is  in  the  bulb 
whose  weight  changes  therefore;  these  changes  of  weight  are  registered  by 
the  pencil  on  the  moving  tablet. 

(57) 


SELF-RECORDING  RAIN  GAUGE   (DRAPER'S  Pattern) 
As  the  box  becomes  fuller  and  fuller  of  rain  water,  it  becomes  more  and  more 
heavy.    Its  weight  extends  the  spiral  springs  and  causes  the  pencil  to  trace  a  hue 
on  the  tablet. 

(58) 


VII.    THE    WORK    OP   AN    OBSERVATORY. 


I  should  like  to  be  able  to  give  a  vivid  picture  of  the  work  of  an 
astronomical  observatory;  of  its  daily  routine;  of  the  results 
which  it  seeks  for ;  of  the  ideals  it  keeps  in  view ;  of  its  relation  to 
the  community,  and,  finally,  of  the  relation  of  each  member  of  the 
community  to  it.  I  do  not  know  how  I  can  do  this  better  than  by 
reprinting  here  a  few  extracts  from  a  lecture  which  I  delivered  on 
this  subject  before  the  Society  of  California  Pioneers  in  May,  1887. 
After  giving  a  brief  history  of  the  observatory,  and  after  enumera- 
ting its  instruments  and  equipment,  which  was  soon  to  be  complete, 
I  went  on  to  say  : 

"You  will  shortly  have  your  grand  observatory— that  is,  the  teles- 
copes, the  other  instruments,  the  buildings  and  all  the  necessary 
appliances  to  make  the  whole  of  this  magnificent  outfit  useful. 
Suppose  they  are  all  standing  there,  silent,  waiting.  What  next. 
There  must  be  a  corps  of  observers  to  utilize  them — to  bring  out  the 
results  they  are  capable  of  giving.  The  Regents  of  the  University 
have  taken  a  large-minded  and  liberal  view  of  the  situation,  and  they 
have  appointed  a  staff  of  competent  astronomers  who  will  do  credit  to 
their  unrivalled  opportunity. 

THE  WORK   OF  ASTRONOMERS. 

The  prevailing  ideas  about  an  astronomer's  work  are  singularly 
erroneous,  as  they  are  really  inheritances  from  the  days  of  astrology. 
It  is  very  commonly  supposed  that  the  astronomer's  business  is  to 
sit  at  the  eye-piece  of  his  telescope  in  a  costume  more  or  less  pictur- 
esque and  outlandish,  and  to  watch  the  heavens  go  by  and  to  "make 
discoveries."  Exactly  what  these  discoveries  are  is  usually  not 
stated,  but  unless  a  sufficient  number  are  forthcoming  the  astron- 
omer is  held  to  be  blameworthy.  There  are  plenty  of  discoveries 
to  be  made,  but  the  times  are  changed  since  GALILEO  took  his"  very 
£rst  look  through  a  small  telescope  hardly  more  powerful  than  an 
ordinary  field  glass.  He  saw  that  Venus,  the  mother  of  love, 
emulated  the  phases  of  Cynthia,  the  moon,  and  by  that  simple  obser- 
vation overturned  the  theory  that  all  the  planets  shone  by  their 
own  light,  and  finally  that  the  planets  revolved  round  the  earth. 
You  must  mark,  though,  that  the  discovery  was  in  the  astronomer's 
interpretation  of  his  observation,  not  in  the  observation  itself.  Again, 
GALILEO'S  discovery  of  the  four  satellites  of  Jupiter,  HERSCHEL'S  of 
the  planet  Uranus,  LE  VERRIER  AND  ADAMS'  discovery  of  Neptune, 
HALL'S  of  the  satellites  of  Mars  —  perhaps  such  as  these  can  never 
(59) 


60  THE  WORK   OF  AN    OBSERVATORY. 

be  repeated.  It  may  well  be  that  there  are  no  more  than  eight 
planets — that  all  the  satellites  have  been  already  discovered.  So 
it  may  be  that  these  glaring,  obvious  and  popular  discoveries, 
so  to  say,  are  come  to  a  natural  limit.  I  do  not  say  that  this  is  so. 
I  say  it  may  well  be  so.  If  there  is  a  satellite  more  to  Mars  or  Nep- 
tune or  a  satellite  to  one  of  the  satellites  of  Jupiter  or  Saturn  we  may 
hope  to  find  it.  If  there  is  not,  the  fruitless  hours  we  may  have 
spent  in  the  search  for  these  objects  do  not  show  for  much.  You 
cannot  know  how  many  such  hours  there  are  in  an  astronomer's 
life.  I  believe  that  the  elder  STRUVE  spent  twenty  years  looking 
for  Neptune,  but  it  is  not  even  in  the  books  that  he  looked  at  all.  What 
we  know  is  that  in  his  search  f  or  Neptune  he  discovered  and  measured 
thousands  of  double  stars,  and  that'he  laid  the  firm  foundations  of 
a  Science  of  Double  Stars.  He  said  nothing  of  his  unsuccessful 
search  because  he  found  nothing.  In  that  one  respect  we  shall  be 
more  fortunate  than  other  possessors  of  large  telescopes.  What  we 
cannot  see  with  our  telescope,  the  most  powerful  of  all,  in  our  ele- 
vated situation,  the  best  in  the  world,  need  not  be  looked  for  with 
inferior  telescopes  in  less  favored  situations.  We  shall  be  justi- 
fied in  publishing  our  negative  results. 

Let  me  give  you  a  picture  of  what  you  might  see  any  night  in 
visiting  the  Lick  Observatory,  and  then  let  me  try  to  tell  you  what 
the  meaning  of  it  all  may  be.  You  enter  a  large  room  lighted 
feebly  by  a  lamp,  and  if  you  stand  a  moment  you  can  see 
that  somewhere  near  the  center,  is  a  large  and  complicated 
instrument,  a  meridian  circle,  composed  of  a  telescope,  of 
microscopes,  of  divided  circles.  The  room  is  almost  perfectly 
dark  except  for  the  feeble  glimmer  of  a  hand  lamp  which  the 
observer  carries,  and  by  whose  light  he  examines  alternately  the 
face  of  the  clock,  whose  beats  you  hear,  and  the  list  of  the  star 
which  he  is  to  observe.  Soon  you  see  him  point  the  telescope  out 
through  the  opening  in  the  roof  of  the  building,  and  at  the  expected 
moment  the  star  he  seeks  enters  the  field  of  view  of  his  telescope. 
He  is  already  seated,  and  looking  through  the  eye-piece  at  the  star 
as  it  slowly  moves  along.  If  your  eye  could  replace  his,  you 
would  see  the  star  as  a  brilliant  and  very  small  disc — moving  slowly 
and  regularly  across  the  field  of  view  and  coming  up  to,  crossing 
and  leaving  each  one  of  a  set  of  fine  spider  lines  stretched  in  the 
eye -piece.  As  the  star  crosses  each  one  of  these  the  observer  taps 
a  telegraph  key,  and  this  tap  and  the  clock-beats  are  all  that  you 
can  hear  standing  where  you  are.  The  telegraph  key  registers  a  little 
mark  on  a  revolving  sheet  of  paper  in  another  room  among  rows  of 
marks  made  by  other  telegraph  signals  automatically  sent  from  the 
pendulum  of  the  standard  astronomical  clock,  to  the  chronograph. 
As  soon  as  the  taps  have  ceased  the  observer  leaves  the  telescope  and 
writes  down  five  numbers  in  a  little  book  he  carries,  and  this  star  is 
* 'observed."  Another  and  another  and  another  star  is  observed 


THE  WORK  OF  AN  OBSERVATORY.  61 

in  the  same  way,  and  thirty  or  forty  such  ,  observations  make 
a  night's  work  of  this  one  astronomer.  Another  and  another 
and  another  night's  work  is  added  to  the  first  one,  and  so  on  for 
years  and  years.  What  is  the  meaning  of  all  this  ? 

In  the  firstplace  let  us  see  what  data  the  observer  has  gained  from 
his  observation  of  a  single  star: 

On  the  next  morning  he  consults  the  register  on  the  revolving 
barrel  and  he  finds  that  a  certain  star  has  crossed  the  spider  lines 
in  the  telescope  at  so  many  hours  so  many  minutes  so  many  seconds 
and  so  many  hundredths  of  a  second.  He  finds  from  his  little  book 
which  registers  the  readings  of  his  microscopes  and  divided  circles 
that  the  same  star  was  so  many  degrees,  minutes  and  seconds  and 
decimals  of  a  second  from  the  north  pole  of  the  sky.  The  whole  of 
his  night's  work  on  this  star  has  given  him  two  numbers.  One  number 
that  tells  the  exact  time  by  his  clock,  when  the  star  crossed  the  merid- 
ian, and  one  that  tells  him  the  angle  between  the  star  and  the  north 
pole.  Now,  these  two  numbers  have  to  be  corrected  in  various  com- 
plicated ways  by  calculation — for  refraction,  aberration,  precession, 
nutation,  and  after  an  hour's  computation  on  each  observation  he 
finds  two  new  numbers — and  these  give  him  the  star's  longitude  and 
latitude  as  they  would  have  been  if  the  star  had  been  observed  ex- 
actly at  the  beginning  of  the  year  1875.  That  is  the  whole  outcome, 
so  far,  of  the  observation  of  this  one  star — which  took,  say  five 
minutes — and  of  its  calculation,  which  took,  say  60  minutes.  The 
thirty  other  stars  "observed  "  on  this  night ;  the  thirty  stars  of  200 
other  nights  in  the  same  year  ;  the  6,000  observations  of  each  of 
ten  years,  say,  are  finally  printed  in  a  book.  There  are  only  three 
columns,  — one  gives  the  star's  name  and  the  two  others  give  its 
longitude  and  latitude  as  they  would  have  been  observed  had  each 
of  the  60,000  observations  been  made  at  the  exact  inctant  which 
separates  Dec.  31,  1874,  from  Jan.  1,  1875.  That  is  a  catalogue  of 
stars.  It  has  taken  a  strong  and  an  able  man  ten,  fifteen,  twenty 
years  to  make,  and  he  is  proud  of  it  and  glad  to  sacrifice  his  ease 
and  his  life  to  it.  But  how  disappointing  all  this  is  !  What  has 
become  of  the  romantic  aspect  of  that  dark  and  silent  room,  with 
its  roof  uncovered  to  the  stars,  with  no  sound  heard  but  the  monot- 
onous beating  of  the  clock  ;  with  no  light  but  the  feeble  glimmer  of 
the  astronomer's  lamp  ?  Do  you  think  the  dignity  and  romance  is 
all  gone  ?  Vanished  into  two  columns  of  figures  ?  Let  us  see. 
First,  let  me  tell  you  that  many  and  many  an  astronomer 
has  been  content  to  look  no  further  than  this  himself.  To  leave  all 
beyond  to  others.  There  have  been  others,  too,  who  made  their 
catalogues  of  these  same  stars,  it  may  have  been  fifty,  it  may  have 
been  a  hundred  years  ago.  If  we  compare  two  catalogues  of  the 
same  stars  made  fifty  years  apart  we  shall  find  that  the  positions 
of  the  fixed  stars  are  not  fixed  at  all.  Just  such  observations  as 
these  were  made  by  HIPPARCHUS  two  thousand  years  ago,  and  were 


62  THE  WORK   OF  AN   OBSERVATORY. 

compared  with  earlier  observations  than  his  own,  and  to  him  we 
owe  the  discovery  of  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes.  Just  such 
observations  as  these  were  made  by  the  Moors  in  Spain  a  thousand 
years  ago,  and  to  them  we  owe  the  determination  of  the  laws  of 
astronomical  refraction.  Just  such  observations  as  these  were  made 
by  JAMES  BRADLEY,  astronomer  royal  at  Greenwich  140  years  ago,  and 
to  him  we  owe  the  discovery  of  aberration.  One  hundred  years 
ago  SIR  WILLIAM  HERSCHEL  showed  that  after  all  the  effects  of 
precession,  refraction,  aberration,  had  been  allowed  for,  still  the 
stars  were  not  at  rest.  Each  one  had  what  HERSCHEL  called  a 
proper  motion — one  proper  and  peculiar  to  the  star.  The  unexplained 
residual  proper  motions  were  examined  by  HERSCHEL,  and  he  an- 
nounced his  grand  discovery  that  the  sun  and  the  whole  solar 
system  was  whirling  through  space,  away  from  some  of  the  fixed 
stars  towards  others  of  them.  The  stars  we  move  away  from 
crowd  toward  each  other  by  their  proper  motion,  just  as  the  two 
rails  of  a  railway  seem  to  meet  behind  a  flying  train.  The  stars  in 
front  press  away  from  each  other  as  the  groups  of  trees  in  a  forest 
seem  to  open  as  we  approach  them.  Just  such  observations  as  these 
led  two  of  the  greatest  living  astronomers,  in  Sweden  and  in  Ger- 
many, less  than  five  years  ago,  to  suspect  that,  allowing  for  all  the 
discoveries  of  HIPPARCHUS,  of  AL  HAZEN,  of  BRADLEY,  of  HERSCHEL, 
there  was  yet  a  motion  of  all  the  stars  in  the  sky  in  a  grand  vortex 
parallel  to  the  milky  way  itself ;  that  every  star  might  be  moving 
in  a  gigantic  orbit  swayed  by  the  attraction  of  that  noble  galaxy 
which  spans  our  winter  skies.  Have  I  shown  you  that  there  is 
still  a  romantic  aspect,  a  real  dignity,  in  the  numbers  which  como 
from  the  taps  of  the  astronomer's  telegraph  key,  from  the  inscription 
of  the  readings  of  his  divided  circles  and  of  his  microscopes  ?  Is  it  not 
plain  that  we  must  not  turn  away  from  the  silent  room  where  the  mo- 
notonous routine  is  unbroken,  and  say  that  we  are  disappointed  :  If 
we  are  disappointed,  does  it  not  show  that  we  were  simply  ignorant  ? 
May  we  not  say  of  the  true  astronomer,  that  "to  him  the  fates  are 
known  of  orbs  dim  hovering  on  the  skirts  of  space  ?"  Just  such 
conclusions  as  these  are  at  the  end  and  on  the  way  in  every  one  of 
the  myriad  series  of  observations  will  be  made  at  your  own  Lick 
Observatory,  and  at  all  other  observatories  this  year,  this  decade, 
this  century ;  next  year,  next  decade,  next  century.  The  day  of 
glaring  discoveries,  startling  announcements  may  be  over,  as  I  said 
before — but  the  reward  of  patient,  continuous,  faithful,  intelligent 
labor  is  just  as  sure  now,  as  it  has  been — as  it  always  will  be.  I 
have  described  to.  you  how  catalogues  of  stars  are  made  with  a 
meridian  circle  and  what  they  lead  to.  Similarly  many  of  the  ob- 
servations with  the  great  telescope  are  just  as  much  apparently 
mechanical  and  routine  and  uninteresting  on  the  surface.  Night 
after  night,  and  year  after  year,  Mr.  BURNHAM  will  measure  the 
angle  between  the  two  component  stars  of  a  binary  system,  and 


THE   WORK   OF  AN  OBSERVATORY.  63 

finally  we  shall  compute  the  period  of  revolution  of  one  of  these 
suns  about  another,  and  their  distance  apart.  Other  series  of  labo- 
rious and  seemingly  mechanical  observations  will  lead  to  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  distance  of  this  system  from  the  earth,  and  then  we 
can  say  just  how  much  mass  the  system  has  in  terms  of  the  sun's 
mass — just  how  heavy  it  is  compared  to  the  earth.  This  has  to  be 
done  for  one  system,  for  another,  for  another  and  another,  and 
finally  we  shall  know  just  what  order  of  magnitudes  are  to  be 
expected  in  the  scheme  of  creation. 

We  have  already  learned  that  our  sun  is  a  star  like  other  stars, 
but  small  among  its  fellows,  though  infinitely  important  to  us. 
Again,  suppose  the  telescope  is  used  to  examine  the  surface  of  a. 
planet,  of  Mars,  of  Jupiter,  of  Saturn.  The  astronomer  does  not 
sit  there  and  let  the  planet  "drift  into  his  gaze,"  as  the  poet  has  it, 
but  he  seeks  it  out,  he  questions  every  aspect  of  it,  not  only  with 
his  imagination  but  with  carefully  planned  micrometric  measures- 
executed  with  painful  laborious  accuracy  night  after  night.  It  is 
a  refined  land-survey  by  novel  methods  that  he  makes,  and  it  is  after 
all  only  an  extremely  accurate  map  that  he  constructs.  There  is  no- 
way in  which  an  appreciation  of  the  art  of  the  practical  astrono- 
mer can  be  so  quickly  and  so  thoroughly  gained  as  by  looking 
through  a  large  telescope  at  a  planet  like  Mars,  for  example,  and  see- 
ing how  almost  infinitely  little  detail  can  be  made  out  in  any  one  view  * 
of  this  minute  flaring  disc,  and  then  to  examine  carefully  the  maps 
that  we  have  of  the  surf  ace  of  Mars,  where  hundreds  and  hundreds  of 
particulars  have  been  carefully  and  correctly  recorded,  as  the  results- 
of  thousands  and  thousands  of  hours'  work.  The  first  feeling  of  an 
amateur  in  looking  at  such  an  object  is  invariably  one  of  utter  dis- 
appointment. Where  is  the  promised  glory  of  the  heavens  ?  It  is- 
not  here.  Whose  fault  is  it  ?  Should  we  blame  the  telescope  ? 
our  eyes  ?  our  minds  ?  or  the  canopy  of  heaven  itself  ?  WORDSWORTH: 
has  asked  these — and  other — questions  in  his  poem  Star-Gazers,  and 
he  goes  on  to  say — 

Whatever  bo  the  cause,  'tis  sure  that  they  who  pry  and  pore 
Seem  to  meet  with  little  gain,  seem  less  happy  than  before. 
One  after  one  they  take  their  turn,  nor  have  I  one  espied 
That  does  not  slackly  go  away  as  if  dissatisfied. 

This  is  the  dissatisfaction  of  inadequate  knowledge.  More  knowl- 
edge brings  more  light,  and  more  light  brings  deep  pleasure  and 
deep  satisfaction.  As  it  is  with  simple  looking  through  the  tele- 
scope so  it  is  with  our  spectroscopic  observations.  It  is  not  the 
rainbow  tinted  beauty  of  the  spectrum  that  we  admire,  but  the 
minute  displacement  of  its  lines  that  we  measure,  and  measure  with 
pain  and  labor  and  fatigue,  with  faithful,  conscientious,  endless 
care.  Again,  in  photography,  what  do  you  think  it  costs  to- 
produce  a  map  of  the  stars  with  our  immense  camera?  It  is- 


64  THE   WORK   OF  AN   OBSERVATORY. 

not  simply  to  point  the  telescope,  to  prepare  the  plate,  to 
expose  it  and  develop  it,  for  no  instantaneous  exposures  will 
do  here.  Our  exposures  must  be  for  two  or  three  hours  suc- 
cessively, and  during  this  whole  time  the  telescope  must  be 
made  to  follow  the  stars  from  rising  to  setting  with  perfect  pre- 
cision. During  all  this  period  the  astronomer's  eye  must  be 
there  to  see,  and  the  astronomer's  hand  must  be  there  to  correct 
the  slightest  deviation  in  the  pointing  of  the  telescope  itself.  Three 
hours  of  exposure  will  give  us  a  map  of  four  square  degrees  in  the 
sky.  There  are  more  than  40,000  square  degrees  in  the  whole  sky, 
so  that  10,000  maps  are  needed  to  cover  it.  Say,  twenty-five  long 
years,  200  nights  in  each  year,  must  be  spent  to  cover  the  sky 
once  only.  Art  is  long  and  life  is  short. 

I  assume  that  I  have  already  made  it  plain  what  kinds  of  work 
we  shall  undertake  at  the  new  observatory,  and  in  a  general  way 
how  we  are  going  to  do  it.  You  will  see  that  it  is  not  going  to  be  a 
place  for  idlers — neither  for  idle  astronomers  nor  for  idle  guests. 
If  we  are  to  make  the  Lick  Observatory  a  place  which  the  whole 
State  and  the  whole  country  is  to  be  proud  of,  and  to  which  astron- 
omers of  the  whole  world  will  come  to  confirm  their  previous  inves- 
tigations or  to  resolve  their  previous  doubts,  it  is  our  sacred  duty 
to  preserve  for  ourselves  the  right  to  uninterrupted  and  con- 
tinuous work.  It  is  only  in  this  way  that  our  real  duty  to  the 
community  can  be  done,  and  any  other  course  will  be  sure  to  end 
in  dissatisfaction  and  disappointment. 

Mr.  LICK'S  original  gift  to  the  Lick  Observatory  was  $700,000. 
The  deed  of  trust  was  so  drawn  that  this  $700,000  alone  was  avail- 
able, and  all  the  expenses  of  building  the  observatory  have  been 
paid  out  of  this  sum ;  none  of  the  interest  which  this  sum  has 
earned  during  the  thirteen  years  of  the  trust  is  available  for  the 
observatory  but  goes  to  the  residuary  legatees,  who  are  the  Society 
of  Pioneers  and  the  California  Academy  of  Sciences.  More  than 
$575,003  have  been  expended  in  leveling  off  the  top  of  the  mountain, 
constructing  waterworks,  building  all  the  buildings,  providing  a  water 
supply,  buying  all  the  instruments,  etc.  There  will  remain  for 
the  benefit  of  the  observatory  less  than  $125,000.  The  Regents 
of  the  University  have  to  invest  this  in  such  securities  as  they  can 
find  as 

A  PERMANENT   ENDOWMENT  FUND. 

From  this  and  from  such  other  funds  as  the  Regents  may  appro- 
priate, and  as  may  be  given  by  private  persons,  must  be  paid  all 
the  expenses  of  the  observatory,  for  salaries,  for  maintenance, 
repairs  and  additions,  which  requires  not  less  than  $20,000  a  year, 
and  Mr.  LICK'S  endowment  does  not  produce  the  half  of  this.  The 
State  of  California  has  generously  printed  volume  one  of  our  publica- 
tions. It  is,  perhaps,  hardly  safe  to  assume  that  the  State  will  be 
willing  to  continuously  print  such  very  technical  work  always,  and 


THE   WORK  OF  AN    OBSERVATORY.  65 

it  is  of  great  importance  that  a  publication  fund  should  be  estab- 
lished. The  publication  fund  should  not  be  less  than  $25,000,  the 
interest  on  which  ($1,250)  will  enable  us  to  publish  our  work  in  a 
suitable  manner.  It  must  be  remembered  that  under  the  most 
favorable  circumstances  the  State  can  only  pay  for  such  publications 
as  can  be  printed  with  ordinary  types.  One  of  the  principal  objects  of 
the  observatory  will  be  to  make  a  photographic  map  of  the  heavens, 
by  means  of  the  large  telescope  and  its  photographic  objective.  To 
express  the  results  of  this  work  it  will  be  necessary  to  publish  maps 
by  photo-lithography  or  otherwise.  These  maps  could,  under  no 
circumstances,  be  paid  for  by  the  State,  unless  by  a  special  appro- 
priation. This  photographic  work  is  of  immense  importance,  and 
the  most  brilliant  results  may  be  expected  to  follow  from  it  if  it  is 
prosecuted  intelligently  and  faithfully.  To  do  this,  the  observa- 
tory should  have,  a  fund  available  for  photographic  and  spectro- 
scopic  work  only.  The  largest  part  of  the  interest  of  this  fund 
should  be  expended  in  paying  the  salaries  of  two  persons — one  an 
astronomer  who  attends  to  the  spectroscopic  work  and  overlooks  the 
photographic  operations,  the  other  a  professional  photographer  of 
the  highest  skill,  who  attends  to  the  very  delicate  photographic 
manipulation.  The  best  gift  that  could  be  made  to  the  observatory 
would  be  one  which  should  provide  for  the  salaries  of  these  two  men 
by  the  interest  on  a  special  fund. 

THE  LIBRARY. 

In  administering  the  observatory,  the  Lick  Trustees  felt 
obliged  to  cut  down  the  appropriation  for  a  library  to  its  very  lowest 
limits.  A  proper  astronomical  library  should  contain  some  seven- 
teen or  eighteen  thousand  volumes,  and  should  cost  about  $25,000. 
The  Lick  Trustees  purchased  about  two  thousand  volumes  of 
these,  making  selection  of  the  ones  that  are  absolutely  essen- 
tial for  our  work,  and  have  trusted  to  the  generosity  of  private 
citizens  of  California  to  provide  a  library  for  the  Lick  Observatory, 
which  should  bear  the  name  of  the  donor.  A  gift  of  $25,000  out- 
right for  the  purchase  of  a  large  astronomical  library,  and  the 
provision  for  an  annual  income  of  about  $2,000  for  subscription  to 
astronomical  and  mathematical  periodicals,  and  the  purchase  and 
binding  of  books,  would  be  one  of  the  most  practical  and  valuable 
additions  to  our  equipment.  The  observatory  has  been  built  with 
a  careful  eye  to  its  annual  running  expenses  being  kept  small.  It 
is  very  completely  equipped  as  to  its  instruments.  Its  chief  need 
is,  and  will  be,  funds  producing  an  annual  income  for  the  paymc  nt 
of  enough  astronomers  to  utilize  its  magnificent  outfit.  - 

I  trust  that  I  have  given  something  like  an  adequate  view  of  the 
Lick  Observatory — what  it  is  and  what  it  ought  to  be.  I  beg  you 
to  remember  that  it  can  only  become  and  remain  an  honor  to  the 
State  by  doing  the  strictly  scientific  work  for  which  it  was  intended 


66  THE   WORK   OF  AN   OBSERVATORY. 

in  the  best  possible  manner.  Remember  that  the  success  of  the 
observatory  depends  finally  upon  the  observers — upon  their  skill 
and  upon  their  number. 

I  can  promise  you  for  myself  and  for  my  colleagues  that  we  will 
spare  no  labor  to  bring  out  all  the  results  which  the  splendid  instru- 
ments can  give.  We  will  give  our  whole  force — all  our  efforts  and 
all  our  lives — to  this  end.  We  ask  from  you  your  most  hearty  and 
loyal  support ;  we  feel  sure  that  we  shall  have  it.  Secure  for  us  the 
time  to  work  in,  and  help  us  to  maintain  a  sumcent  number  of  ob- 
servers to  fully  utilize  the  opportunity.  If  you  completely  under- 
stand the  case  as  it  is,  if  you  take  the  large  view  of  it  which  is  the 
only  true  view,  I  feel  sure  that  the  Lick  Observatory  will  not  dis- 
appoint California." 


OF  THK 

•->  -N^lVER^T1 


VIII.    TELESCOPES. 


THEIR   HISTORY  AND   THE   DISCOVERIES   MADE   WITH  THEM. 

It  may  not  be  superflous  to  give  here  a  brief  sketch  of  the  pro- 
gress and  improvement  of  telescopes,  from  the  time  of  their  invention 
down  to  the  present  day,  when  the  king  of  them  all  has  just  begun 
his  reign.  This  is  perhaps  an  appropriate  place  to  trace  the  gene- 
alogy and  to  describe  the  ancestry  of  the  most  powerful  telescope 
in  the  world. 

THE  INVENTOR  OF  THE  TELESCOPE. 

GALILEO  is  popularly  regarded  as  the  inventor  of  the  telescope, 
since  in  his  hands  it  performed  such  prodigies.  But  he  himself  says 
he  got  the  idea  of  combining  two  lenses,  to  produce  an  enlarged 
image  of  an  object,  from  Holland.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the 
telescope  was  invented  there  by  either  METIDS,  LIPPERHEY  or 
JANSEN,  for  the  States  General  in  November,  1608,  refused  to 
grant  a  patent  for  such  a  device  on  the  ground  that  it  was 
already  known  and  in  use  for  military  purposes.  GALILEO 
heard  of  this  invention  in  1609,  and  at  once  made  a  telescope,  which 
he  exhibited  at  Venice.  It  is  noteworthy  that  the  telescope  was 
invented  for  use  in  war ;  its  applications  in  science  began  with  GA- 
LILEO'S return  to  Florence.  Here  he  made  several  instruments, 
some  of  which  I  have  myself  seen.  They  were  on  the  principle  of 
the  ordinary  opera-glass,  but  they  were  single -barreled.  The  most 
powerful  only  magnified  some  thirty  times  and  its  vision  was  far 
from  good,  since  the  art  of  grinding  lenses  was  in  its  infancy.  To 
understand  the  revolution  that  GALILEO'S  discoveries  made,  we  should 
comprehend  the  times  in  which  he  lived. 

GALILEO'S  DISCOVERIES. 

The  sun  was  then  regarded  as  pure  fire,  immovable  and  immacu- 
late ;  but  GALILEO  found  spots  upon  its  disc,  and  showed  that  it 
rotated  on  an  axis.  Perhaps  then,  it  was  the  earth  after  all  that 
rotated  on  an  axis  and  not  the  whole  universe  that  turned  around 
nightly  to  display  the  glory  of  the  stars  to  contemplative  men.  The 
number  of  the  stars  was  limited — had  not  PTOLEMY  catalogued  them? 
— and  the  milky  way  was  just  a  shining  path  through  heaven.  But 
GALILEO'S  telescope  showed  innumerable  stars  which  the  eye  had 
never  seen  and  introduced  unknown  complexities  in  the  place  of 
the  simple  order  which  had  reigned  before.  The  number  of  the 
planets  was  then  seven ;  the  Sun,  the  Moon,  Mercury,  Venus,  Mars, 
(67) 


68  TELESCOPES. 

Jupiter,  Scutum.  But  in  January  1610,  GALILEO  found  that  Jupiter 
was  accompanied  by  satellites  in  no  wise  different  from  our  moon. 
The  sacred  number  seven  had  become  eleven  :  PYTHAGORAS  had  not 
constructed  any  harmonies  with  eleven  as  a  basis.  There  were  not 
eleven  studies  in  the  curriculum.  The  planets  themselves  were  no 
longer  bright  points  of  light,  but  worlds  with  discs  and  faces  like 
the  sun  and  moon.  Saturn — aged  Saturn — had  servitors  to  help  him 
on  his  journey. 

Venus  in  particular  resembled  the  moon  in  the  most  special  way. 
Her  disc,  which  at  one  time  was  round,  became  a  half-circle,  and 
finally  a  thin  crescent  like  the  new  moon.  In  doubt  as  to  the  exact 
significance  of  this,  GALILEO  recorded  his  doubts  and  concealed  his 
discovery  in  an  anagram,  as  follows: 

"Hsec  immatura  a  me  jam  frustra  leguntur  o.  y."  That  is  to 
say,  "These  things  as  yet  not  ripe  are  vainly  gathered  by  me."  His 
discovery  was  hidden  in  this  sentence  al?o,  for  when  its  letters  are 
transposed  it  makes  the  declaration:  "Cynthise  figuras  semulatur 
mater  amorum" — that  is,  "  Venus  imitates  the  phases  of  the  moon.' 

RESULTS   OF  GALILEO'S   OBSERVATIONS. 

The  first  observation  of  GALILEO  on  Venus  was  made  in  September, 
1610,  and  the  result  of  it  was  to  prove  that  the  planets  revolved 
round  the  sun  and  not  round  the  earth.  For  centuries,  man  and 
the  earth  on  which  he  lived  had  been  considered  the  true  center  of 
the  universe,  which,  therefore,  was  made  for  him.  But  if  Venus 
'had  ;  phases  like  the  moon,  she  shone  like  the  moon,  by  virtue  of 
the  sun's  reflected  light ;  and  it  took  but  a  little  calculation  to 
show  that  the  observed  phases  changed  as  Venus  revolved  round  the 
sun,  and  were  in  no  way  dependent  upon  the  position  of  the  earth. 
Here,  at  one  blow,  the  '  'optick  tube"  which  MILTON  saw  when  he 
visited  GALILEO  at  Florence,  had  overturned  the  theories  of  cen- 
turies and  had  directed  human  inquiry  along  new  channels  —  along 
the  channels,  in  fact,  which  the  world  is  following  to-day.  KEPLER, 
NEWTON,  CUVIER,  LYELL,  HUXLEY,  DARWIN  would  have  been  im- 
possible if  GALILEO  had  not  struck  this  first  blow.  It  is  important  to 
notice  that  it  was  not  the  observation  that  GALILEO  made,  but  the 
interpretation  of  the  observation,  that  did  the  work.  It  was,  after 
all,  by  a  man  that  man  was  dethroned  as  the  king  and  center  of  the 
universe.  It  is  precisely  the  same  to-day.  Powerful  telescopes  and 
.  grand  observatories  are  of  no  use  unless  the  facts  which  they  reveal 
are  co-ordinated  and  interpreted  by  competent  observers.  The  man 
is  more  than  half  the  telescope,  and  of  ten  a  discovery  has  been  chiefly 
valuable,  not  in  and  for  itself,  but  as  a  means  to  free  some  master- 
mind and  to  give  it  opportunity.  I  never  see  the  planet  Uranus 
without  remembering  that  its  almost  chance  discovery  gave  HEB- 
SCHEL  thirty  years  of  leisure,  and  that  the  study  of  its  motions  by 


TELESCOPES.  69 

ADAMS  and  LE  VERRIER  led  not  only  to  the  discovery  of  Neptune, 
but  also  devoted  the  whole  lives  of  two  great  philosophers  to  the 
service  of  mankind. 

TELESCOPES  OF  THE  SEVENTEENTH  AND  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURIES. 

The  glasses  which  were  available  to  GALILEO  and  his  successors 
were  of  poor  quality  and  of  small  dimensions.  The  largest  pieces 
were  only  five  inches  or  so  in  diameter.  These  were  made  into  ob- 
ject glasses  by  HUYGHENS  (about  1670),  and  to  avoid  the  aberra- 
tions of  form  and  color  the  focal  length  of  these  had  to  be  40,  50, 
even  100  feet.  The  mechanical  difficulties  of  handling  such  long 
telescopes  were  (and  are)  great.  Yet  in  the  hands  of  CASSINI, 
HUYGHENS  and  others  great  discoveries  were  made  by  them.  The 
real  nature  of  Saturn  and  his  ring  was  unfolded  ;  satellites  to  Saturn 
were  discovered  ;  the  nebulae  were  for  the  first  time  seen  ;  the  sur- 
faces of  all  the  planets  were  studied. 

The  difficulties  in  procuring  glass  led  NEWTON  to  the  construction 
of  a  reflecting  telescope  in  1668.  This  was  an  inch  in  aperture  and 
magnified  thirty-nine  times,  and  its  mirror  which  took  the  place  of 
the  glass  objective  was  made  of  an  alloy  of  copper  and  tin.  Never- 
theless the  long  and  clumsy  refractors  of  HUYGHENS  held  their  own 
until  HADLEY  (1723)  constructed  a  reflector  only  five  feet  long  which 
was  superior  to  the  best  of  the  refractors. 

REFLECTING   TELESCOPES. 

In  the  last  half  of  the  eighteenth  century  SHORT  constructed 
admirable  reflectors,  and  HERSCHEL  began  the  manufacture  of 
others  which  surpassed  even  these.  About  1785  HEESCHEL'S  twenty- 
foot  reflectors  had  an  aperture  of  eighteen  inches  and  were  instru- 
ments of  extreme  precision. 

The  advantages  of  reflectors  are  found  in  their  cheapness  and  in 
the  fact  that,  supposing  the  mirrors  perfect  in  figure,  all  the  rays  of 
the  spectrum  are  brought  to  one  focus.  Thus  the  reflector  is  suit- 
able for  spectroscopic  or  photographic  researches  without  any 
change  from  its  ordinary  form.  This  is  not  true  of  the  refractor, 
since  the  rays  by  which  we  now  photograph  (the  blue  and  violet 
rays)  are,  in  that  instrument,  owing  to  the  secondary  spectrum, 
brought  to  a  focus  slightly  different  from  that  of  the  yellow  and 
adjacent  rays,  by  means  of  which  we  see.  Reflectors  have  been 
made  as  large  as  six  feet  in  aperture,  the  greatest  being  that  of 
Lord  ROSSE,  but  those  which  have  been  most  successful  have  hardly 
ever  been  larger  than  two  or  three  feet.  The  smallest  satellite  of 
Saturn  (Mimas)  was  discovered  by  Sir  WILLIAM  HERSCHEL  with  a 
four-foot  speculum,  but  all  the  other  satellites  discovered  by  him 
were  seen  with  mirrors  of  about  eighteen  inches  in  aperture. 
With  these  the  vast  majority  of  his  other  discoveries  were  made. 
The  satellites  of  Neptune  and  Uranus  were  discovered  by  LASSELL 


70  TELESCOPES. 

with  a  two-foot  speculum,  and  much  of  the  work  of  Lord  ROSSE  has 
been  done  with  his  three-foot  mirror,  instead  of  his  more  celebrated 
six-foot  one. 

From  the  time  of  NEWTON  till  quite  recently  it  was  usual  to 
make  the  large  mirror  or  objective  out  of  speculum  metal,  a 
brilliant  alloy  liable  to  tarnish.  When  the  mirror  was  once  tar- 
nished through  exposure  to  the  weather,  it  could  be  renewed 
only  by  a  process  of  polishing  almost  equivalent  to  figuring  and 
polishing  the  mirror  anew.  Consequently,  in  such  a  speculum, 
after  the  correct  form  and  polish  were  attained,  there  was  great 
difficulty  in  preserving  them.  In  recent  years  this  difficulty  has 
been  largely  overcome  in  two  ways:  First,  by  improvements  in  the 
composition  of  the  alloy,  by  which  its  liability  to  tarnish  under 
exposure  is  greatly  diminished,  and,  secondly,  by  a  plan  proposed 
by  FOUCAULT,  which  consists  in  making,  once  for  all,  a  mirror  of 
glass,  which  will  always  retain  its  good  figure,  and  depositing  upon 
it  a  thin  film  of  silver,  which  may  be  removed  and  restored  with 
little  labor  as  often  as  it  becomes  tarnished. 

In  this  way  one  important  defect  in  the  reflector  has  been  avoided. 
Another  great  defect  has  been  less  successfully  treated.  It  is  not  a 
process  of  exceeding  difficulty  to  give  to  the  reflecting  surface  of 
either  metal  or  glass  the  correct  parabolic  shape  by  which  the  incident 
rays  are  brought  accurately  to  one  focus.  But  to  maintain  this 
shape  constantly  when  the  mirror  is  mounted  in  a  tube  and  when 
this  tube  is  directed  in  succession  to  various  parts  of  the  sky,  is  a 
mechanical  problem  of  extreme  difficulty.  However  the  mirror 
may  be  supported,  all  the  unsupported  points  tend  by  their  weight 
to  sag  away  from  the  proper  position.  When  the  mirror  is  pointed 
near  the  horizon  the  flexure  is  one  thing ;  it  is  quite  a  different  thing 
when  the  telescope  is  pointed  near  the  zenith. 

As  long  as  the  mirror  is  small  (not  greater  than  eight  to  twelve 
inches  in  diameter),  it  is  found  easy  to  support  it  so  that  these  varia- 
tions in  the  strains  of  flexure  have  little  practical  effect.  As  we  in- 
crease its  diameter  up  to  48  or  72  inches  the  difficulties  become  almost 
insurmountable.  In  fact  no  good  mirror  has  been  made  larger  than 
36  inches.  Mr.  COMMON,  of  England,  is  now  engaged  on  a  large 
reflector  of  60  inches  aperture,  and  if  any  one  can  make  such  a 
mirror  successful  it  is  he.  But  up  to  this  time  his  36-inch  mirror 
is  the  largest  reflector  which  has  been  really  successful. 

THE  ACHROMATIC  TELESCOPE. 

Although  refractors  of  the  simple  form  used  by  HUYGHENS  were 
wonderful  instrument  in  their  day,  yet  they  would  not 
now  be  regarded  as  satisfactory  owing  to  the  aberrations  with 
which  a  single  lens  is  affected.  When  ordinary  light  passes 
through  a  simple  lens  it  is  partially  decomposed,  the  different 
rays  coming  to  a  focus  at  different  distances.  The  focus  for 


TELESCOPES.  71 

red  rays  is  most  distant  from  the  object-glass,  and  that  for 
violet  rays  the  nearest  to  it.  Thus  arises  the  chromatic  aber- 
ration of  a  lens.  But  this  is  not  all.  Even  if  the  light  is  but  of  a 
single  degree  of  refrangibility,  if  the  surfaces  of  a  lens  are  spherical 
the  rays  which  enter  the  edges  of  the  lens  will  come  to  a  focus 
quicker  than  those  which  enter  near  the  center.  This  latter 
defect  of  spherical  aberration  was  partly  cured  by  the  enormously 
long  focused  lenses  constructed  by  HUYGHENS. 

But  of  the  two  defects,  the  chromatic  aberration  is  much  the 
more  serious  ;  and  no  way  of  avoiding  it  was  known  until  the  latter 
part  of  the  last  century.  The  fact  had,  indeed,  been  recognized 
by  mathematicians  and  physicists,  that  if  two  glasses  could  be 
found  having  very  different  ratios  of  refractive  to  dispersive  pow- 
ers, *  the  defect  could  be  cured  by  combining  lenses  made  of  these 
different  kinds  of  glass.  But  this  idea  was  not  realized  in  practice  until 
the  time  of  DOLLAND,  an  English  optician  who  lived  during  the  last 
century.  This  artist  found  that  a  concave  lens  of  flint  glass  could 
be  combined  with  a  convex  lens  of  crown  of  double  curvature 
in  such  a  manner  that  the  dispersive  powers  of  the  two  lenses 
should  neutralize  each  other,  being  equal  and  acting  in  opposite 
directions.  But  the  crown  glass  having  the  greater  refractive 
power,  owing  to  its  greater  curvature,  the  rays  would  be  brought 
to  a  focus  without  dispersion.  Such  is  the  principle  of  the  con- 
struction of  the  achromatic  objective.  As  now  made,  the  outer  or 
crown  glass  lens  is  double  convex  ;  the  inner  or  flint  one  is  gen- 
erally nearly  plano-concave. 

CONTEST   BETWEEN   REFLECTORS  AND   REFRACTORS. 

The  struggle  for  supremacy  between  reflectors  and  refractors, 
which  began  before  the  time  of  HERSCHEL  (1750)  is  not  yet  con- 
cluded, but  by  the  invention  of  the  achromatic  combination  of 
DOLLAND  the  refractor  was  placed  on  equal  terms.  About  1803  the 
four-inch  telescopes  of  DOLLAND  were  successfully  competing  with 
much  larger  reflectors  of  that  day.  In  1830  the  manufacture  of 
glass  had  improved  so  far  that  objectives  of  nine  inches  and  more 
could  be  made  ;  and  several  of  about  that  size  were  constructed  for 
the  observatories  of  Dorpat,  Rome  and  Munich  by  FRAUENHOFER, 
the  successor  of  GUINAND.  There  was  nothing  which  could  be  seen 
by  the  forty-foot  reflector  of  HERSCHEL  which  was  not  equally  well 
seen  by  means  of  these  far  more  convenient  instruments.  Ihe  form 
of  their  mounting  was  also  vastly  improved  and  the  permanence  of 
their  adjustments  was  a  capital  advantage. 

When  FRESNEL  invented  the  modern  system  of  lighthouse  illumin- 
ation the  demand  for  good  glass  became  very  great,  and  in  this 

*By  the  refractive  power  of  a  glass  is  meant  its  power  of  bonding  the 
rays  out  of  their  course,  so  as  to  bring  them  to  a  focus.  By  its  dispersive 
power  is  meant  its  power  of  separating  the  colors  so  as  to  forma  spectrum, 
or  to  produce  chromatic  aberration. 


72  TELESCOPES. 

case  as  in  others  every  advance  made  in  the  service  of  the  arts  was 
quickly  utilized  by  science,  which  had  given  the  original  impetus. 
The  refractor  became  the  standard  instrument,  while  the  reflector 
did  wonders  in  the  hands  of  a  few  observers,  who  made  their  own 
instruments  and  who  knew  how  to  obviate  each  one  of  the  many 
difficulties  in  their  use.  The  15-inch  telescopes  of  Harvard  College 
and  of  St.  Petersburg  remained  the  most  powerful  refractors  from 
1845  to  1861.  In  the  mean  time,  the  two-foot  reflector  of  LASSELL 
had  made  numerous  and  important  discoveries.  Ihe  satellites  of 
Uranus  and  Neptune  were  discovered  by  its  aid,  and  Mr.  BOND,  at 
Harvard  College,  anticipated  LASSELL' s  discovery  of  the  seventh 
satellite  of  Saturn  by  a  few  hours  only. 

THE   TELESCOPES   OF  ALVAN  CLARK. 

The  refractors  made  by  ALVAN  CLARK  (1845 -60)  were  of  extreme 
excellence,  and  some  of  his  smaller  telescopes  (7  and  8  inches)  had 
found  their  way  to  England.  In  1861  the  CLARKS  made  a  telescope 
of  18  inches  aperture.  In  1873  the  26-inch  refractor  of  the  ^Naval 
Observatory  at  Washington  was  mounted  and  soon  proved  itself  to 
be  a  master  work.  No  other  telescope  in  the  world  has  done  so 
much  and  so  brilliant  work  in  the  fifteen  years  just  passed.  A 
duplicate  of  this  was  made  by  the  CLARKS  for  the  University  of 
Virginia,  one  nearly  as  large  (23-inch)  for  Princeton,  then  a  30-inch 
for  St.  Petersburg  and  finally  the  36-inch  for  the  Lick  Observatory. 
The  most  important  matter  in  a  telescope  is  perfect  definition, 
i.  e.,  neatness,  accuracy  in  the  image  of  the  object  looked  at.  This 
allows  the  use  of  high  magnifying  power  provided  there  is  light 
enough  collected  by  the  object-glass.  It  is  precisely  in  respect 
of  definition  that  the  Clark  telescopes  are  pre-eminent. 

LIGHT-GATHERING   POWER. 

It  is  not  merely  by  magnifying  that  the  telescope  assists  the  vision, 
but  also  by  increasing  the  quantity  of  light  which  reaches  the  eye 
from  the  object  at  which  we  look.  Indeed,  should  we  view  an  ob- 
ject through  an  instrument  which  magnified  but  did  not  increase 
the  amount  of  light  received  by  the  eye,  it  is  evident  that  the  bril- 
liancy would  be  diminished  in  proportion  as  the  surface  of  the 
object  was  enlarged,  since  a  constant  amount  of  light  would  be 
spread  over  an  increased  surface ;  and  thus,  unless  the  light  were 
brilliant,  the  object  might  become  so  darkened  as  to  be  less  plainly 
seen  than  with  the  naked  eye.  How  the  telescope  increases  the 
quantity  of  light  will  be  seen  by  considering  that  when  the  unaided 
eye  looks  at  any  object,  the  retina  can  only  receive  as  many  rays  as 
fall  upon  the  pupil  of  the  eye.  By  the  use  of  the  telescope  as  many 
rays  can  be  brought  to  the  retina  as  fall  on  the  entire  object-glass. 
The  pupil  of  the  human  eye,  in  its  normal  state,  has  a  diameter  of 
about  one-fifth  of  an  inch  ;  and  by  the  use  of  the  telescope  the  retina 
is  virtually  increased  in  surface  in  the  ratio  of  the  square  of  the 


TELESCOPES.  73 

diameter  of  the  objective  to  the  square  of  one-fifth  of  an  inch.  Thus, 
with  a  two-inch  aperture  to  our  telescope,  the  number  of  rays  col- 
lected is  one  hundred  times  as  great  as  the  number  collected  with 
the  naked  eye. 

THE  POWER   OF  THE   EYE  AND   OF    THE   TELESCOPE    CONTRASTED. 

If  the  brightness  of  a  star  seen  with  the  eye  alone  is  1,  with  a  2- 
inch  telescope  it  is  100  times  as  bright,  with  a  4-inch  telescope  it  is  400 
times  as  bright,  8-inch  telescope  it  is  1,600  times  as  bright,  16-inch 
telescope  it  is  6,400  times  as  bright,  32-inch  telescope  it  is  25,600 
times  as  bright,  36-inch  telescope  it  is  32,400  times  as  bright.  That 
is,  stars  can  be  seen  with  the  36-inch  telescope  which  are  30,000 
times  fainter  than  the  faintest  stars  visible  to  the  naked  eye.  While 
the  magnifying  power  which  can  be  successfully  used  on  a  5-inch 
telescope  is  not  above  400,  the  36-inch  telescope  will  permit  a 
magnifying  power  of  more  than  2,000  diameters  on  suitable  objects, 
stars  for  example.  This  power  cannot  be  used  on  the  moon  and 
planets  with  real  advantage  for  many  reasons,  but  probably  a  power 
of  1,000  or  1,500  will  be  the  maximum.  The  moon  will  thus  appear 
under  the  same  conditions  as  if  it  were  to  be  viewed  by  the  naked 
eye  at  a  distance  of  say  200  miles.  This  is  the  same  as  saying  that 
objects  about  300  feet  square  can  be  recognized.  So  that  no  village 
or  great  canal  or  even  large  edifices  can  be  built  on  the  moon  with- 
out our  knowledge.  Highly  organized  life  on  the  moon  will  make 
itself  known  in  this  indirect  way  if  it  exists. 

If  one  were  looking  at  the  earth  under  the  same  conditions,  the 
great  works  of  hydraulic  mining  or  the  great  operations  on  Dakota 
farms  or  California  ranches  would  be  obvious. 

LARGE    TELESCOPES. 

A  great  enemy  to  large  telescopes,  and  indeed  to  all  telescopic 
vision,  is  the  unsteadiness  of  our  own  atmosphere.  It  is  just  in  this 
respect  that  the  site  for  the  Lick  Observatory  has  been  well  chosen. 
We  are  sure  that  we  can  use  higher  magnifying  powers  to  advan- 
tage there  than  at  any  other  stations.  Whatever  advantages  be- 
long to  large  telescopes  (and  there  are  many),  we  shall  come  nearer 
to  realizing  there  than  at  other  sites.  We  have  lately  heard  much 
of  the  disadvantages  and  failures  of  large  telescopes,  in  some  cases 
from  persons  who  are  not  skilled  in  their  use.  It  will  be  far  more 
satisfactory  to  point  to  the  results  of  observations  at  Mt.  Hamilton 
th#n  to  dogmatize  about  what  those  results  are  to  be.  If  we  stop 
to  inquire  what  results  we  might  like  to  hear  of,  we  may  see  that 
some  of  them  are  unlikely  to  be  reached  or  impossible  of  attain- 
ment. Mr.  LICK  wished  to  prove  or  disprove  the  existence  of 
animals  in  the  moon.  If  there  are  city  building  animals  we  shall 
know  this  indirectly.  We  should  all  like  to  know  if  Neptune  is 
the  last  planet  of  our  system,  but  this  is  probably  not  a  question 


74  TELESCOPES. 

for  large  telescopes  at  all,  but  one  for  photographic  maps  of  the 
sky  to  settle.  If  there  are  more  faint  satellites  we  ought  to  be 
able  to  see  them,  and  so  with  many  other  similar  problems. 

But  leaving  such  questions  to  one  side  for  the  present,  let  us  con- 
sider the  subject  in  another  way.  The  whole  earth  is  dotted  with 
powerful  telescopes  in  the  hands  of  able  astronomers.  There  is  not 
a  single  telescope  so  powerful  as  our  own ;  there  is  no  one  so  ad- 
vantageously situated  ;  some  of  our  observers  are  the  equal  of  any 
on  the  globe.  There  will  be  a  natural  limit  to  the  performance  of 
other  telescopes,  and  that  limit  will  yet  remain  within  our  powers. 
In  this  very  simple  way  the  Lick  telescope  will  become  the  final 
arbiter  in  very  many  important  and  difficult  questions.  If  it  does 
no  more  than  this  and  if  it  does  this  well  and  faithfully  it  will  jus- 
tify its  existence  and  all  the  labor  that  it  has  cost.  What  it  does 
more  than  this  will  be  still  more  to  its  credit. 

THE  PHOTOGRAPHIC  OBJECTIVE 

I  have  spoken  elsewhere  in  this  book  of  one  of  the  chief  adjuncts 
of  the  great  instrument — namely  the  photographic  lens  of  33  inches 
aperture,  which  Mr.  ALVAN  G.  CLARK  has  lately  completed.  When 
this  is  applied  to  the  large  telescope  it  converts  it  into  a  gigantic 
photographic  camera. 

The  automatic  records  which  this  will  give  of  the  features  of  the 
moon,  the  planets  and  the  stars,  will  unquestionably  be  far  beyond 
what  has  been  attained  elsewhere.  I  prefer  in  this  case  also  to 
point  to  results  actually  attained  rather  than  to  say  what  they  are 
likely  to  be. 


IX. 

THE   UNMOUNTED    LENS 

OP  THE 

GREAT    TELESCOPE    AT    MOUNT    HAMILTON. 


By  A.  V.  G. 


I. 

Mysterious  Eye,  dim  shrouded  from  the  light, 

Bound  with  dark  bands  like  Lazarus  in  his  tomb, 

Shut  in  by  muffled  doors  from  sight  and  sound 

Of  the  world's  outer  life,  soft  speech  of  men, 

And  neigh  of  steed,  and  tramp  of  busy  feet ; 

No  sound  about  thee  save  the  sullen  wind 

That  moans  and  raves  around  thy  mountain  crypt ; 

No  light  save  thine  own  inward  radiance 

That  links  thee  with  the  space -embosomed  stars  : 

Close-lidded  sleep 'st  thou  in  thine  inner  court 

Of  dark  and  silence  the  while  men  do  forge 

With  bolt  and  rivet  and  strong  bands  of  steel, 

The  mighty  orbit  for  thy  wondrous  sphere. 

Know'st  thou  thy  power  ?    Dost  feel  thy  destiny  ? 

Beneath  these  grave-like  cerements  thrill'st  thou  not 

Thro'  all  thy  bright  circumference  with  dim 

Prophetic  visionings  of  the  Abyss 

That  from  gray  evening  till  the  purple  dawn, 

From  dawn  until  the  evening  gray,  will  smite  thee 

With  awful  splendor3  of  uncounted  suns  ? 

O  mighty  Eye  !  say  what  wilt  thou  reveal, 

When  from  the  tomb  men  Christ-like  bid  thee  forth, 

Unbind  thy  bands,  and  set  thee  like  a  star 

Upon  Earth's  grave  and  cloud-encircled  brow, 

Eye  unto  eye  with  heaven's  dread  mystery, 

Lidless  against  intolerable  light  ? 

II. 

O  blindfold,  0  enfettered,  now  hath  Time 
Unto  its  golden  fullness  come — along 
(75) 


76  TO   THE   UNMOUNTED   LENS. 

The  dim  horizon  glows  the  dawn — awake, 

O  slumber-held ;  unclose,  0  wondrous  Eye; 

A  world  awaits  the  breaking  of  thy  sleep. 

0  bright  Evangelist  come  forth  !    Earth  s  way 

Lies  lonely  thro'  the  trackless  void  ;   a  waste 

Of  cloud  and  storm,  and  darkness  vast  and  deep, 

Betwixt  her  and  the  stars,  and  far  beyond 

The  farthest  glint  of  star  lies  Heaven — so  far 

We  cannot  see  the  road  the  souls  must  tread 

Who  thither  go.     Perchance  that  thou  mayst  span 

The  gloomy  sea,  and  set  the  Gates  of  Death 

A  little  way  ajar.     Perchance  that  thou 

With  cloudle33  vision  slowly  sweeping  up 

The  mighty  Nave  that  cleaves  the  galaxy, 

God's  visible  Tabernacle  in  the  skies, 

Star-built  from  shining  undercroft  to  dome, 

Past  pillared  pomp  of  worlds,  and  columns  wrought 

With  fair  entangle  of  amethyst  and  pearl, 

Thro'  jacinth  portals  hung  with  mist  of  stars, 

And  fiery  fringe  of  suns — mayst  come  at  last 

Even  to  the  Chancel  of  the  Universe; 

And  so  thro'  glories  veiled  and  far,  behold 

The  Choral  Stars  that  sang  so  loud  and  sweet 

On  the  first  Morning  when  Creation  sprang 

In  dewy  beauty  from  Jehovah's  hand. 

Mayhap  that  thou,  with  swiftness  unconceived, 

Wilt  overtake  the  light  and  see  the  things 

That  have  been,  and  that  shall  be  nevermore  ; 

Follow  the  dying  star  in  her  swift  flight 

Athwart  Eternity;  track  the  lost  world, 

That  drifting  past  our  ken,  still  gleameth  fair 

Upon  the  confines  of  some  far  off  realm; 

Perchance  the  Star  which  first  spake  peace  to  men 

Will  dawn  through  thee  upon  the  waiting  earth ; 

And  O  far-seeing  Eye,  perchance  mayst  thou 

Reveal  the  City  Beautiful  which  lies 

Foursquare  in  midst  of  heaven,  whose  shining  walls 

Are  of  fair  jasper  builded  and  pure  gold  ; 

Whose  battlements  are  crystal,  and  whose  ways 

Are  sapphire-paven,  and  whose  gates  are  pearl. 

III. 

Thou  answerest  not ;  but  this  we  know — that  thou 
Wilt  lift  the  world  one  step  anearer  heaven. 
Thou  art  the  topmost  pace  of  that  vast  stair, 
Builded  by  Titan  souls  up  thro'  the  gloom 


TO   THE  UNMOUNTED   LENS.  77 

Of  churchly  tyranny  and  priestly  scorn  ; 
Still  standeth  Galileo  at  the  base, 
Forever,  straining  his  grand  sightless  eyes 
Towards  the  light,  groping  with  shackled  hands 
For  the  next  step,  where  Newton  stands  and  weighs 
The  Universe.     Slow  climbed  those  God-like  souls, 
Building  this  mighty  stairway  as  they  went 
One  step  between  the  cradle  and  the  grave. 
Leverrier  set  this  landing,  whence  he  saw 
Uranus  swerve  a  hair-breadth  from  its  path, 
And  cried,  '  'A  world  !    a  world  !    no  eye  has  seen, 
Behold  'tis  such  a  weight,  'tis  such  a  size  !" 
And  lo  !  the  world  is  there — and  Herschel,  this — 
Grand,  patient  Herschel,  watching  thro*  the  years 
The  rythmic  revolutions  of  the  spheres, 
Seeing  in  the  store  house  of  the  Infinite, 
The  star- dust  of  the  uncreated  worlds. 


IV. 

Through  thee  will  Holy  Science,  putting  off 

Earth's  dusty  sandals  from  her  radiant  feet, 

Survey  God's  beauteous  firmament  unrolled 

Like  to  a  book  new-writ  in  golden  words 

And  turn  the  azure  scroll  with  reverent  hand, 

And  read  to  men  the  wonders  God  hath  wrought. 

Gazing  thro'  thee,  her  eye  will  wander  o'er 

Infinity's  illimitable  fields 

Where  bloom  the  worlds  like  flowers  about  God's  feet; 

Rose  worlds  and  purple  suns,  and  seas  on  seas 

Of  lily  stars  that  make  a  way  of  light, 

And  golden  orbs  that  border  all  the  way , 

And  meadows  fair  of  greenest  emerald, 

And  billowy  seas  that  palpitate  and  flash 

Now  seen,  now  lost  beyond  all  vision's  ken  ; 

Where,  cradled  on  the  glowing  ether,  swing3 

As  'twere  our  Lord  Christ's  blue  forget-me-not, 

The  planet-petaled  blossom  of  our  sun, 

That  mystic  flower,  whose  filaments  of  flame, 

From  burning  anthers  fling  life  manifold, 

And  bloom  and  beauty  on  its  crown  of  worlds; 

Where,  striving  o'er  the  dim  ethereal  plain, 

Orion  brandishes  his  flaming  sword 

And  shakes  ajar  the  awful  vestibule 

Of  heaven's  stupendous  treasury  of  suns 

Set  for  a  jewel  in  the  mighty  hilt. 


78  TO   THE   UNMOUNTED  LENS. 

V. 

O  patient  hands  that  wrought  this  crystal  pure, 

Rest  now,  'tis  meet  that  ye  should  rest,  O  touch 

More  soft  than  down  that  swathes  the  eider's  breast, 

More  delicate  than  the  Virgin's  threads  that  float 

Athwart  the  sunshine  on  a  summer's  morn. 

No  grosser  toil  shall  henceforth  thee  engage — 

No  grander  task  remaineth — therefore  rest. 

O  patient  hands  !  we  bless  you,  seeing  how 

Ye  bridged  for  us  the  fair  and  starry  way; 

O  quiet  hands  !  we  kiss  you  where  ye  lie 

Enfoldeii  in  a  calm  and  perfect  rest; 

For  death  hath  touched  you  lightly,  lovingly, 

And  clothed  you  with  a  beauty  unbeheld, 

Even  as  ye  touched,  so  light,  so  lovingly, 

This  lucent  sphere  and  made  it  clear  and  pure — 

The  world's  one  matchless  gem.     Rest  gentle  hands  ! 


VI. 

And  thou  who  didst  conceive  the  mighty  thought — 

This  marvellous  window  of  the  world's  vast  soul  — 

Who  walked  the  ways  of  dull  and  sordid  men 

Nor  asked  the  world  for  love,  nor  sought  its  praise; 

Who,  scorning  ease,  wrought  early  and  wrought  late 

That  thou  might'st  leave  a  legacy  of  Light 

To  all  the  generations  yet  to  come  ; 

While  dull  of  heart  and  brain,  men  did  not  know 

How  with  them  walked  a  messenger  of  God, 

Until  Death  clove  the  mortal  husk  and  showed 

The  Soul  magnificent  within — until 

The  toil-worn  hands  relaxed  and  showed  them  Heaven. 

Thou  art  more  grandly  sepulchered  than  kings. 

No  obelisk  of    old,  nor  sculptured  pile, 

Nor  oriel  stained,  in  dim  Cathedral  Fane, 

So  fair  as  this  Memorial  Window  set 

In  God's  vast  Temple,  builded  not  with  hands; 

Across  its  disk  the  armies  of  the  skies 

Will  pass  with  jeweled  feet  slow  moving  to 

The  solemn  Miserere  of  the  night ; 

Above  thee,  mirrored  fair,  the  Morning  Star, 

Will  lead  the  Hallelujahs  of  the  dawn  ; 

Earth's  wise  and  good  will  gather  at  thy  shrine 

And  link  thy  name  forever  with  the  stars. 


TO   THE   UNMOUNTED   LENS.  79 

VIT. 

Priest-ministrant  within  this  mighty  Fane, 

Whereon  thou  standest  now  is  holy  ground; 

Divinest  gift  is  thine — to  gaze  the  first 

On  glories  yet  unseen  by  mortal  eyes. 

Gird  up  thy  loins,  clothe  thee  with  righteousness, 

Cast  the  world's  glamour  from  thee  and  its  cares; 

And  if  thine  eye  be  single,  thy  heart  pure, 

Perchance  in  the  still  watches  of  the  night 

When  slumber  lieth  on  the  eyes  of  men, 

Thou 'It  catch  the  effulgent  shadow  of  His  feet, 

As  walking  in  His  garden  in  the  cool, 

He  plucks  some  world  that  bursts  to  sudden  bloom 

Of  beatific  life  beneath  His  hand. 

Not  death,  as  men  do  say — naught  dies — the  soul 

Looks  from  the  windows  of  her  falling  house 

Calm  with  the  reflex  of  some  fairer  sphere; 

So  worlds  die  not:  sublimed  by  touch  divine, 

Their  beauty  and  magnificence  depart 

To  brighter  realms;  or  viewless  grown  to  eyes 

Too  weak  to  bear  the  excess  of  light  which  veils 

The  Throne-place  of  the  glory  of  the  Lord, 

In  fair  invisible  orbits  softly  sweep 

To  unimagined  harmonies  of  sound 

Around  the  Central  Glory,  whither  tend 

Suns,  moons  and  stars  and  all  the  hosts  of  heaven, 

Things  seen  and  things  invisible  and  past, 

AH  beauty  and  all  truth,  all  harmony — 

All  things  that  be  and  all  that  are  to  be, 

Life  beyond  Life,  Time  and  Eternity. 


(80) 


X.  ASTRONOMICAL,  PHOTOGRAPHY*. 


In  order  to  appreciate  the  present  state  of  Astronomy,  its  new- 
methods,  its  novel  instruments,  its  recondite  problems,  it  is  necessary 
to  glance  at  its  condition  a  half  a  century  ago.  The  great  astronom- 
ers, BESSEL  and  W.  STRUVE,  were  then  contending  in  friendly 
rivalry  to  found  the  science  on  a  sure  basis.  They  had  a  perfectly 
definite  object,  and  that  object  has  been  attained  through  their 
efforts,  and  through  the  efforts  of  the  school  of  young  men  whom 
they  trained  either  directly  or  indirectly  —  ARGELANDER,  SCHOEN- 
FELD,  KRUEGER,  AUWERS,  WINNECKE,  WAGNER,  SCHIAPARELLI  in 
Europe,  WALKER,  COFFIN,  HUBBARD,  GOULD  in  America. 

The  attention  of  astronomers  was  then  almost  exclusively  directed 
to  the  question  of  the  motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  as  determined 
by  the  law  of  universal  gravitation.  The  vast  catalogues  of  stars 
which  have  been  made  in  the  past  half  century,  as  well  as  the 
accurate  discussion  and  re-discussion  of  the  older  observations  of 
BRADLEY  (1750),  at  Greenwich,  were  all  undertaken  for  this  sole 
object.  The  school  of  mathematical  astronomers  founded  by  EULER, 
LAPLACE,  LA  GRANGE,  GAUSS,  utilized  these  observations  to  the 
utmost.  The  examination  of  the  surfaces  of  the  planets  was  an 
entirely  secondary  question,  and  was  largely  left  to  amateur  astron- 
omers. The  surface  of  the  sun  was  studied  only  in  the  crudest 
manner,  simply  for  the  enumeration  of  the  solar  spots. 

The  fact  that  these  spots  were  periodic,  was  only  established  in 
1851.  Sir  JOHN  HERSCHEL  was  almost  the  only  astronomer  by 
profession  who  devoted  himself  to  observations  not  "of  precision." 

In  this  last  fifty  years,  an  entirely  new  science  has  arisen — Astro- 
physics—which is,  indeed  the  daughter  of  Astronomy,  but  the 
cousin-german  of  Chemistry,  Technics,  Physics. 

This  new  science  always  had  its  cultivators,  even  before  it  had  a 
name.  The  elder  HERSCHEL  set  himself  the  problem  '  'to  find  out  the 
construction  of  the  heavens,"  arid  this  is  the  problem  of  Astrophy- 
sics, in  contradistinction  to  the  problem  of  exact  Astronomy  —  "to 
find  out  how  the  heavenly  bodies  move."  The  modern  form 
of  HERSCHEL'S  phrase  is,  "to  determine  the  present  constitution 
and  the  evolution-history  of  the  stars,  the  comets,  the  sun,  the 
planets." 

We  must  regard  Sir  WILLIAM  HERSCHEL  as  the  founder  of  the 
science.  He  has  had  great  followers:  —  SCHROETER,  Sir  JOHN  HER- 
SCHEL, BEER,  MAEDLER,  FRAUENHOFER,  KIRCHHOFF,BUNSEN,  LAS- 

*This  section  originally  appeared  in  the  Overland  Monthly  for  November 
1886,  under  the  title:  Photography  the  Servant  of  Astronomy. 
(81)  *fvi; 


82  ASTRONOMICAL,  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

SELL,  BOND,  DE  JA  RUE,  RUTHERFURD,  DRAPER,  SCHIAPARELLI, 
VOGEL,  JANSSEN,  LOCKYER,  YOUNG,  LANGLEY,  PICKERING,  not  to 
speak  of  a  host  of  other  familiar  names. 

To-day  there  are  several  observatories  devoted  exclusively  to  the 
new  science,  and  their  number  is  growing.  This  should  be  so. 
There  are  too  many  astronomical  observatories  which  are  idle.  If 
the  charm  of  the  new  fields  is  enough  to  make  them  efficient  in  for- 
warding the  science  as  a  whole,  we  must  welcome  the  new  impetus. 
But  there  is  a  note  of  warning  to  which  we  must  give  attention. 
We  must  keep  strictly  before  us  the  methods  by  which  the  older 
astronomy  has  arrived  at  its  proud  position  as  the  chief  of  the 
physical  sciences.  For  hundreds,  yes,  thousands  of  years,  one 
principle  has  run  through  all  of  Astronomy.  Assiduous  observa- 
tions must  be  made  according  to  well-considered  plans,  matured 
after  deep  reflection.  The  results  of  these  observations  must  be 
compared  with  a  theory  expressed  rigorously  in  the  terms  of  mathe- 
matics. The  differences  between  observation  and  theory  must  be 
treated  by  a  profound  analysis,  so  to  derive  corrections  to  the 
provisional  theory.  This  provisional  theory  must  in  its  turn  become 
•  the  basis  of  comparison  with  nature,  and  so  on,  until  the  ideal  is 
reached  by  successive  approximations.  This  ideal  is  simple  and  in 
many  researches  it  has  been  attained  already.  It  is  reached  when 
we  have  pushed  the  successive  approximations  so  far  that  we  can 
predict  the  position  or  the  motion  of  a  heavenly  body  as  accurately 
as  we  can  observe  it.  When  this  stage  is  reached  we  may  leave  the 
special  problem  in  hand,  until  the  methods  of  observations  are  them- 
selves improved. 

If  Astrophysics  will  accept  this  ideal  and  strive  for  it,  there  is  no 
future  so  brilliant  that  we  may  not  claim  it  for  her  portion.  If 
this  straight  and  narrow  way  is  departed  from,  although  the  new 
science  is  followed  never  so  assiduously,  no  essential  progress  can 
be  expected,  and  real  harm  is  sure  to  follow. 

Astrophysics  has  three  well  marked  lines  of  research,  namely: 
Spectrum  Analysis  (now  a  quarter  of  a  century  old),  Celestial  Photo- 
metry (half  a  century),  Celestial  Photography  (dating  back  exactly 
forty-six  years).  SCHIAPARELLI'S  theory  of  meteor-streams  and  their 
connection  with  comets,  belongs  to  this  science  in  so  far  as  it  throws 
light  upon  the  material  out  of  which  comets  are  built ;  and  every 
part  of  physics  which  treats  of  the  action  of  one  body  upon  another 
body  at  a  distance,  whether  through  gravitation,  heat,  magnetism, 
electricity,  has  close  relations  to  it.  But  the  three  main  paths  are 
Spectroscopy,  Celestial  Photometry,  and  Celestial  Photography.  It 
is  of  the  latter  path  that  I  speak  at  this  moment.  We  shall  follow 
it  assiduously  at  the  Lick  Observatory,  and  we  shall  have  unrivaled 
opportunities  to  do  so. 

Spectroscopy  in  certain  of  its  lines,  we  shall  also  follow,  and  our 
opportunities  in  this  branch  also  are  unique.  Photometry  is  so 


ASTRONOMICAL   PHOTOGRAPHY.  83 

thoroughly  done  at  the  Harvard  College  Observatory  that  it  would 
be  a  waste  of  energy  for  another  American  observatory  to  devote 
any  great  part  of  its  time  to  such  researches. 

I  assume  that  some  slight  explanation  of  the  differences  between 
a  photographic  telescope  and  an  ordinary  one,  will  not  be  super- 
fluous. The  object  glass  of  an  ordinary  telescope  brings  the  rays 
by  means  of  which  we  see  (those  having  a  wave-length  of  about 
6,000  ten-millionths  of  a  millimetre),  to  an  accurate  focus.  These 
cannot  be  photographed  except  by  special  plates  and  with  special 
difficulty.  The  rays  which  affect  the  photographic  salts  of  silver 
have  a  wave-length  of  about  4,000  ten-millionths  of  a  millimetre, 
and  to  bring  these  special  rays  to  a  focus,  the  two  lenses  of  the 
ordinary  achromatic  object  glass  must  be  supplemented  by  a  third 
lens.  This  third  lens  is  so  arranged  that  it  can  be  placed  in  front 
of  (and  close  against)  the  ordinary  objective,  and  it  turns  the  tele- 
scope from  a  seeing  instrument  into  a  camera.  It  is  also  necessary 
to  say  that  if  the  telescope  remains  fixed,  while  a  bright  star  is 
passing  across  its  field  of  view,  the  image  of  the  star  will  pass  across 
the  sensitive  plate,  and  will  leave  a  "trail"  which  is  the  visible 
representative  of  the  direction  of  the  star's  diurnal  motion;  that  is, 
of  its  motion  from  rising  to  setting.  Equatorial  stars  as  faint  as 
the  8th  or  9th  magnitude  will  give  trails. 


If,  on  the  contrary,  we  attach  an  accurate  driving  clock  to  the 
telescope,  and  cause  it  to  follow  the  star  in  its  motion  from  east  to 
west,  we  shall  have  instead  of  a  trail,  a  bright  point,  the 
photographic  image.  If  we  wish  to  make  a  picture  of  the  sky,  we 
must  register  the  stars  by  such  points  as  these. 


84  ASTRONOMICAL  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

The  figure  page  83  may  serve  to  illustrate  the  meaning.  We  can 
point  the  large  telescope  at  the  sky  with  its  photographic  third-lens 
in  front  of  the  ordinary  object  glass  and  attach  the  driving  clock  so 
as  to  cause  the  tube  always  to  point  accurately  to  the  same  group 
of  stars  as  it  moves  from  east  to  west — from  rising  to  setting.  We 
can  put  a  sensitive  plate  in  the  proper  position  and  expose  it  to  the 
stars  just  as  we  expose  a  plate  to  a  landscape.  Only  in  this  case 
the  exposure  must  be  very  long,  from  5  or  10  seconds  to  an  hour  or 
so,  depending  upon  how  faint  and  feeble  the  light  of  the  stars  may 
be.  When  the  plate  is  developed  we  shall  have  a  picture  of  the. 
sky  —  a  star  map.  Each  star  will  appear  of  its  proper  relative 
brightness  and  in  its  proper  relative  position.  Suppose  we  had  not 
attached  the  clock ;  what  would  have  been  the  result  ?  Each  star 
would  have  moved  from  east  to  west —  from  rising  towards  setting, 
across  the  field  of  view — across  the  sensitive  plate.  Ihe  image  of 
each  star  would  have  rested  only  for  a  moment  upon  any  particular 
portion  of  the  plate — perhaps  not  long  enough  to  make  any  impres- 
sion at  all.  Hence  the  fainter  stars  would  have  left  no  trace  what- 
ever of  their  existence.  The  brighter  ones  would  each  have  left  a 
trail — a  succession  of  instantaneous  images  like  this: 

This  trail  will  represent  the  direction  of  the  star's  motion  from  east 
to  west  perfectly.  It  is  in  this  way,  indeed,  that  we  determine  the 
east  and  west  line  on  our  plates. 

The  trails  have  various  advantages  over  the  images,  one  of  which 
is  that  they  cannot  be  mistaken  for  dust,  or  for  pin  holes  on  the 
plate  itself.  The  position  of  the  dots  in  latitude  and  longitude  can 
be  very  accurately  measured.  The  latitude  of  the  star  can  be  even 
better  determined  from  its  trail,  but  its  longitude  must  then  be  de- 
termined by  special  devices,  which  I  need  riot  describe.  In  the 
ordinary  methods  of  observing,  the  astronomer  views  the  visual 
images  of  the  heavenly  bodies  with  his  eye,  and  either  examines 
their  surfaces,  or  determines  their  positions  with  reference  to  adja- 
cent bodies  (as  for  example,  the  positions  of  satellites  relative  to 
their  planet),  by  means  of  extremely  accurate  and  refined  micro- 
meters, forming  a  part  of  the  eye-piece  of  his  telescope.  In  the 
photographic  methods  he  allows  the  stars  to  impress  themselves  on 
negative  plates  automatically. 

To  utilize  photographic  plates  fully,  and  especially  to  make  them 
a  substitute  for  micrometric  measures,  it  is  necessary  to  contrive 
elaborate  measuring  engines  to  take  the  place  of  the  costly  micro- 
meters, ordinarily  used  with  telescopes.  These  engines  measure 
the  positions  of  the  dots  or  trails  on  the  plates,  after  they  have  been 
removed  from  the  telescope. 

Mr.  RUTHERFURD  first  made  a  satisfactory  engine  of  this  kind ; 
it  was  then  improved  upon  in  the  design  of  Professor  HARKNESS 


ASTRONOMICAL  PHOTOGRAPHY.  85 

adopted  by  the  U.  S.  Transit  of  Venus  Commission,  in  1874,  and  the 
Lick  Observatory  owns  the  finest  specimen  of  this  class,  which  was 
made  for  it  under  the  personal  supervision  of  Professor  HARKNESS. 
This  can  be  seen  in  the  instrument-room  of  the  observatory. 

The  very  first  essay  in  Astronomical  Photography  was  that  of 
Professor  JOHN  WILLIAM  DRAPER,  of  New  York,  who  in  the  year 
1840,  took  a  satisfactory  daguerreotype  of  the  moon.  The  experi- 
ments of  Dr.  DRAPER  were  repeated  by  GEORGE  BOND,  Director  of 
the  Harvard  College  Observatory,  in  1850,  and  a  lunar  daguerreotype 
made  by  him  was  exhibited  at  London  in  1851,  at  the  World's  Fair, 
where  it  attracted  much  attention. 

During  the  years  1853  to  1857,  Mr.  DE  LA  RUE,  of  London,  made 
lunar  daguerreotypes  and  photographs,  some  of  great  excellence. 
In  1864,  Dr.  LEWIS  RUTHERFURD,  of  New  York,  constructed  an 
eleven  and  one  half  inch  objective,  which  was  corrected  only  for  the 
photographic  rays,  and  by  means  of  this  he  obtained  the  finest 
photographs  of  the  moon  which  have  yet  been  made.  Dr.  HENRY 
DRAPER,  about  the  same  time,  made  a  fifteen  inch  reflecting  tele- 
scope with  which  he  also  took  excellent  lunar  photographs.  These 
latter  have  been  enlarged  to  three  and  even  to  four  feet  in  diameter, 
from  the  original  picture  of  about  two  inches  and  a  half.  A  long- 
focus  telescope  is  of  great  advantage  in  these  researches.  The  pic- 
tures in  the  principal  focus  of  the  great  Melbourne  reflector  are 
some  six  inches  in  diameter,  and  I  have  seen  a  few  of  these  of  great 
excellence.  Such  pictures  can  be  enlarged  in  printing,  from  six  to 
twelve  times.  The  photographs  of  the  moon  in  the  focus  of  the 
Lick  equatorial,  will  be  five  inches  in  diameter,  and  will  probably 
stand  an  enlargement  of  twelve  times,  so  as  to  be  five  feet  finally. 
Lunar  photographs  have  not  advanced  our  knowledge  in  any  im- 
portant degree  up  to  this  time,  however,  though  I  hope  for  some- 
thing from  them. 

Solar  daguerreotypes  were  first  taken  by  FOUCAULT  and  FIZEAU 
in  1845  at  Paris,  on  the  advice  of  ARAGO.  In  1857,  Mr.  DE  LA  RUE 
contrived  the  Photoheliograph  for  the  Kew  Observatory,  by  which 
solar  photographs  have  been  taken  since  that  time  daily  at  Kew 
and  Greenwich. 

Mr.  JANSSEN  of  Meudon,  near  Paris,  about  1878,  succeeded  in 
making  his  exquisite  photographs  of  the  sun  on  glass,  which  show 
an  astonishing  amount  of  detail.  I  understand  that  these  are 
chiefly  made  by  means  of  a  six-inch  refractor,  and  I  have  never 
been  able  to  comprehend  how  so  much  detail  can  be  shown  with  an 
objective  of  such  a  small  separating  power,  nor  to  rid  myself  of  an 
impression  that  some,  at  least,  of  these  details  are  due  to  atmos- 
pheric disturbances.  A  telescope  of  a  certain  aperture  can  only 
separate  two  dots  of  light  when  they  are  no  closer  together  than  a 
certain  definite  angle.  A  telescope  of  twice  the  aperture  will  sepa- 
rate dots  of  half  this  distance  and  so  on.  It  almost  seems  as  if 


86  ASTRONOMICAL   PHOTOGRAPHY. 

gome  of  the  beautiful  Meudon  photographs  went  beyond  this  theo- 
imit.    If   the  exposures  are  made 


retic  limit.  If  the  exposures  are  made  extremely  short 
TT^  of  a  second),  very  successful  results  can  be  obtained  in  solar 
photography.  There  is,  undoubtedly,  an  important  field  of  re- 
search still  open  here,  especially  with  large  objectives  of  great 
separating  power. 

The  first  photographs  of  a  solar  eclipse  were  made  by  BUSCH,  at 
Koenigsburg,  in  1851,  and  by  BARTLETT  at  West  Point,  in  1854  ; 
but  these  where  merely  interesting  experiments.  The  eclipse  photo- 
graphs of  DE  LA  RUE  in  1"860,  were  the  first  of  real  scientific  impor- 
tance, since  they  established  beyond  doubt  the  fact  that  the  solar 
protuberances  were  really  appendages  of  the  sun  and  not  of  the 
moon. 

I  believe  the  first  photograph  of  the  spectrum  of  the  Sun  at  a  solar 
eclipse  was  taken  at  the  Egyptian  eclipse  of  1882,  by  Professor 
SCHUSTER,  and  also  by  the  party  under  Mr.  LOCKYER.  Very  per- 
fect photographs  of  the  solar  spectrum  were  taken  at  the  total 
eclipse  of  1883  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  by  the  English  parties  and  by 
the  French  parties,  and  the  subject  does  not  now  present  any  great 
difficulties. 

Photography  served  a  very  useful  purpose  in  its  application  to 
the  transits  of  Venus  of  1874  and  1882.  The  photographs  of  both 
these  transits,  taken  by  means  of  the  horizontal  photoheliograph, 
invented  by  LAUSSEDAT  and  WINLOCK,  and  used  by  the  United 
States  observing  parties,  were  of  extreme  value,  and  it  is  probable 
that  the  values  of  the  solar  parallax  derived  from  the  American 
photographs  at  these  two  transits  will  be  found  to  be  extremely 
near  the  truth. 

According  to  Professor  PICKERING,  the  first  daguerreotype  of  a  star 
was  taken  at  Harvard  College  Observatory,  on  July  17th,  1850, 
under  the  direction  of  the  elder  BOND.  The  star  Vega  was  satis- 
factorily daguerreotyped,  and  later  the  double  star  Castor  gave  an 
elongated  image,  which  war*  plainly  due  to  its  two  component  stars. 
The  sensitiveness  of  the  daguerreotype  plates  then  in  use  was  so 
small  that  even  such  bright  stars  as  these  gave  faint  images,  and  no 
impression  whatever  was  obtained  from  the  pole  star,  no  matter 
how  long  the  exposure.  These  experiments  were  repeated  with 
various  stars  and  clusters,  but  finally  the  work  was  abandoned  on 
account  of  the  photographic  difficulties.  In  1857  the  younger  BOND 
resumed  the  research.  At  this  time  the  collodion  process  had 
greatly  reduced  the  time  of  exposure,  and  the  plates  were  of  much 
greater  sensitiveness.  An  impression  of  the  double  star  Zeta,  Ursae 
Majoris  was  obtained  in  eight  seconds.  A  trail  was  obtained  from 
the  image  of  the  bright  star  Vega.  The  faintest  star  photographed 
was  the  companion  of  Epsilon  Lyrae,  which  is  of  the  sixth  magnitude, 
that  is,  just  visible  to  the  naked  eye. 


ASTRONOMICAL   PHOTOGRAPHY.  87 

A  series  of  measures  was  made  of  the  relative  positions  and 
distances  of  the  various  double  stars  photographed,  in  order  to  see 
whether  measures  made  upon  a  photographic  plate  could  be  used  to 
replace  those  made  in  the  ordinary  manner  at  the  telescope.  It 
was  found  that  a  single  measure  made  upon  the  plate  was  about  of 
the  same  value  as  a  single  measure  made  by  an  astronomer  with  the 
ordinary  micrometer.  Professor  BOND  pointed  out  very  clearly 
how  photographic  images  might  be  used  to  determine  accurately  the 
relative  brightness  of  stars,  and  also  what  the  advantages  of  photog- 
raphy were  for  the  permanent  registration  of  star  positions.  Mr. 
BE  LA  RUE  and  Doctor  RUTHERFURD  soon  after  repeated  these  ex- 
periments of  Proles. sor  BOND,  and  a  very  extended  investigation  was 
undertaken  in  1864  by  Doctor  RUTHERFURD,  and  continued  by  him 
for  many  years.  Most  of  the  principal  clusters  in  the  northern 
heavens  were  photographed,  as  well  as  most  of  the  brighter  double 
stars.  These  researches  have  never  been  fully  utilized  for  the  follow- 
ing reason;  the  photographs  were  measured  in  the  most  careful 
manner  on  a  measuring  engine,  in  which  the  distances  of  one  star 
from  another  were  determined  by  means  of  a  very  accurate  screw. 
After  the  series  of  measures  had  been  continued  for  several  years, 
it  was  discovered  that  the  screw  itself  had  worn  considerably,  so 
that  the  value  of  its  revolutions  was  not  the  same  as  it  had  formerly 
been.  It  was  impossible  to  discover  at  what  time  this  wear  com- 
menced, nor  how  it  progressed,  and  therefore  these  excellent  photo- 
graphs have  remained  undiscussed  up  to  the  present  time.  The 
distances,  which  must  be  accurately  measured,  are  about  -^oij-  of 
an  inch.  The  faintest  stars  shown  in  Doctor  RUTHERFURD'S  eleven- 
inch  telescope  are  about  of  the  ninth  magnitude.  The  plates  used 
by  Doctor  RUTHERFURD  were,  I  believe,  exclusively  wet  plates. 

Doctor  HENRY  DRAPER  attacked  the  same  problem  in  1880,  using, 
however,  the  most  sensitive  dry  plates  then  available  In  1881 
with  an  eleven-inch  refractor  constructed  by  the  CLARKS,  he  ob- 
tained a  photograph  of  the  Nebula  of  Orion,  in  which  one  of  the 
stars  is  shown  whose  magnitude  is  not  more  than  14J.  This  star 
is  barely  visible  with  a  telescope  of  the  same  aperture  as  that  with 
which  the  photograph  was  taken.  The  photographic  plate  now  had 
become  as  efficient  an  instrument  of  research  as  the  eye  itself.  Mr. 
JANSS'EN  also'photographed  the  Nebula  of  Orion  in  1881;  but  the  best 
of  all  such  photographs  has  been  made  by  Mr.  COMMON,  of  Eng- 
land, with  his  three-feet  silver-on-glass  reflector. 

Doctor  B.  A.  GOULD,  in  his  expedition  to  the  southern  hemisphere 
(1870-1884),  carried  with  him  a  photographic  lens  of  eleven  inches 
aperture,  and  during  his  entire  stay  of  more  than  ten  years,  employed 
all  the  available  time  at  his  command  in  accumulating  negatives  of 
the  principal  southern  double  stars  and  clusters.  These  photographs 
have  not  yet  been  discussed,  and  Doctor  GOULD  has  discovered  that 


88  ASTRONOMICAL  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

there  are  signs  that  the  films  on  the  negatives  (from  wet  plates)  are 
now  beginning  to  deteriorate.  Probably  this  extensive  and  impor- 
tant series  will  soon  receive  discussion. 

The  Royal  Astronomer  at  the  Cape  of  GoocJ  Hope,  Doctor  GILL,  has 
undertaken  to  make  a  map  of  the  whole  southern  heavens,  by  photo- 
graphic means  only.  The  Rev.  T.  E.  ESPIN,  of  Liverpool, has  publish- 
ed a  catalogue  of  the  magnitudes  of  500  stars,  determined  by  means  of 
photography  alone.  Mr.  ISAAC  ROBERTS,  of  Liverpool,  has  also  done 
capital  work  of  the  kindr'with  his  reflecting  telescope.  The  most  ex- 
tensive investigation  is  that  of  the  brothers  PAUL  and  PROSPER 
HENRY,  of  the  Observatory  of  Paris.  Important  investigations  have 
also  been  made  at  the  Astrophysical  Observatory  of  Potsdam,  and 
at  two  Physical  observatories  in  Hungary. 

In  1863,  Doctor  HUGGINS,  of  London,  obtained  a  photographic 
image  of  the  spectrum  of  Sinus ,  but  no  lines  were  visible  in  this 
spectrum.  The  first  successful  photograph  of  the  spectrum  of  a 
star  was  obtained  by  Doctor  HENRY  DRAPER,  in  1872.  Each  of 
these  astronomers  succeeded  in  1876  in  obtaining  valuable  spectrum 
photographs  of  the  brightest  stars.  In  1882  they  each  obtained  a 
photograph  of  the  spectrum  of  the  nebula  in  Orion.  Since  1882 
many  astronomers  and  observatories  have  devoted  themselves  to 
photographic  researches,  but  little  has  been  published,  except  by 
the  Observatory  of  Harvard  College.  Here  the  years  1882-1885 
were  spent  in  very  elaborate  experiments,  preliminary  to  undertak- 
ing larger  and  more  important  researches.  The  photographic  tele- 
scope employed  is  eight  inches  in  aperture.  The  chief  results  up 
to  now  have  been  the  establishing  the  relative  brightness  of  one 
hundred  and  seventeen  stars  within  one  degree  of  the  pole. 

A  very  extensive  programme  is  now  being  followed  at  Cambridge 
by  the  use  of  the  photographic  telescope  formerly  owned  by  DR. 
HENRY  DRAPER,  supported  by  a  fund  provided  by  his  widow,  MRS. 
ANNA  PALMER  DRAPER.  Prisms  of  glass  12  by  12  inches  are  placed 
in  front  of  the  object  glass  and  the  spectra  of  all  the  stars  in  the  field 
of  view,  down  to  the  8th  magnitude,  are  simultaneously  photograph- 
ed on  the  plate.  An  enormous  saving  of  time  is  thus  effected.  The 
method  has  many  other  advantages  also,  which  I  need  not  enumer- 
ate here.  If  some  generous  citizen  of  California  will  provide  such  a 
prism  for  the  36-inch  telescope  (and  such  a  prism  is  possible)  the 
spectra  of  very  faint  stars  can  be  photographed.  If  a  planet  exterior 
to  Neptune  exists,  this  is  the  quickest  and  surest  way  to  discover  it. 

In  1882  Dr.  GILL,  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  succeeded  in  pho- 
tographing the  great  comet  of  that  year,  and  in  doing  this  he  proved 
the  practicable  possibility  of  making  star  maps,  which  should  con- 
tain all  the  stars  down  to  the  tenth  magnitude.  In  1885  the  Royal 
Society  granted  £300  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  Observatory  for 
photographic  purposes.  Doctor  GILL  has  set  himself  to  the  solution 
of  two  problems.  First,  that  of  securing  as  soon  as  possible  a.  com- 


ASTRONOMICAL  PHOTOGRAPHY.  89 

plete  photographic  map  of  the  southern  heavens,  containing  every 
star  visible  down  to  the  tenth  magnitude,  so  as  to  continue  the 
Durchmusterung  of  ARGELANDER.  For  the  first  purpose  Mr.  GILL 
makes  use  of  one  of  DALLMEYER'S  rapid  rectilinear  combinations, 
composed  of  two  concavo-convex  achromatic  combinations  of  six 
inches  aperture.  This  camera  is  mounted  on  an  equatorial  stand, 
and  is  pointed  by  means  of  a  telescope  of  forty-five  inches  focal 
length  and  three  and  one  half  inches  aperture.  The  exposures  are 
an  hour  long  when  the  sky  is  clear.  Each  plate  is  six  inches  square, 
and  covers  an  area  of  about  thirty-six  degrees.  Every  such  area 
is  photographed  twice,  so  as  to  render  it  impossible  to  confound  the 
images  of  faint  stars  with  minute  dust  specks.  In  this  way  a  great 
portion  of  the  southern  sky  has  already  been  photographed  in  du- 
plicate. 

The  same  observatory  has  recently  obtained  a  much  more  power- 
ful optical  apparatus  through  the  generosity  of  Mr.  JAMES  NASMYTH, 
who  has  purchased  a  specially  corrected  photographic  objective  of 
nine  inches  aperture  and  nine  feet  focal  length,  made  by  GEUBB, 
of  Dublin.  The  field  of  this  NASMYTH  lens  will  be  much  more 
limited  than  that  of  the  DALLMEYER  apparatus,  but  it  is  expected 
to  obtain  from  it  a  photograph  of  all  stars  to  the  twelfth  or  thir- 
teenth magnitude  inclusive,  within  a  circle  of  a  radius  of  one  or 
one  and  one-half  degrees. 

Mr.  ROBERTS,  in  England,  has  erected  a  reflector  of  twenty  inches 
aperture,  and  of  one  hundred  inches  focus,  for  stellar  photography 
alone,  and  has  made  considerable  progress  in  the  work  of  charting 
the  northern  heavens.  The  size  of  the  field  of  Mr.  ROBERTS'  tele- 
scope is  two  degrees  in  declination,  and  one  and  one-half  degrees  in 
right  ascension.  The  time  of  exposure  is  fifteen  minutes  in  a  clear 
sky.  The  companion  to  the  pole-star  is  just  visible  in  four  seconds 
under  the  best  circumstances.  Mr.  ROBERTS  refers  to  an  important 
difficulty,  which  is,  that  in  most  photographic  plates,  there  are 
small  specks  in  the  film,  many  of  which  look  like  stars,  and  which 
are  extremely  difficult  to  distinguish  from  stars  even  when  they  are 
viewed  through  a  microscope.  Dr.  GILL,  at  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  avoids  this  difficulty  by  taking  two  photographs  of  the  same 
field  successively,  giving  to  each  an  exposure  of  one  hour.  At 
Paris,  thiee  exposures  ofan  hour  each  are  made,  on  the  same  plate. 

Mr.  COMMON'S  experiments  commenced  in  1879.  At  this  time, 
using  dry  plates  with  his  three-foot  reflector,  he  took  successful 
pictures  of  the  Pleiades,  with  one  and  one  half  minute's  exposure, 
showing  all  the  stars  to  the  eighth  and  ninth  magnitude.  In  1882, 
he  devoted  his  time  to  photographing  the  Nebula  in  Orion,  and  has 
obtained  wonderful  results. 

After  making  such  a  splendid  success  with  his  three-foot  re- 
flector, Mr.  COMMON  is  now  making  one  of  five  feet  in  aperture. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  a  mirror  of  this  apejrture  can  be  accurately 


90  ASTRONOMICAL  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

figured  by  the  optican.  The  difficulties  in  using  it,  come  from  un- 
equal flexure  of  its  various  parts  and  from  their  differing  tem- 
peratures. Difficulties  of  this  nature  have  never  yet  been  success- 
fully overcome  for  reflectors  of  more  than  thirty-six  inches  of 
aperture,  but  Mr.  COMMON'S  great  mechanical  skill,  knowledge  and 
experience,  encourages  the  hope  that  he  may  succeed  in  this  im- 
portant undertaking. 

In  September  1884,  Dr.  LOHSE  used  the  eleven-inch  refractor  of 
the  Potsdam  Observatory  to  photograph  the  star  cluster  in  Perseus. 
An  exposure  of  forty -five  minntea  was  given,  and  stars  as  faint  as 
the  tenth  and  eleventh  magnitude  were  registered. 

A  number  of  other  star  clusters  have  also  been  photographed  by 
Dr.  LOHSE.  The  Savilian  Observatory  at  Oxford  (England),  has 
undertaken  to  study  two  constellations  (Lyra  and  Cassiopeia),  by 
photography  on  plates  one  degree  square. 

The  early  experiments  at  the  Paris  Observatory,  1884,  were  made 
with  a  telescope  with  an  aperture  of  16-100  of  a  metre  (6.3  inches), 
and  they  were  so  successful  that  it  was  decided  to  make  a  large 
instrument  specially  for  photography,  and  soon  an  objective  of  34- 
100  of  a  metre  aperture  (13.4  inches),  and  3  metres  and  43-100ths 
focal  length  (134  inches),  was  made.  Parallel  to  this  photographic 
telescope,  one  of  about  the  same  focus,  and  of  24-100ths  of  a  metre 
(9.5  inches)  aperture,  is  placed  as  a  directing  telescope.  In  May, 
1885.  the  new  photographic  telescope  was  first  brought  into  use,  and  a 
few  of  the  important  results  that  have  been  reached  by  it  are 
mentioned  below.  Stars  down  to  the  fifteenth  magnitude  are 
photographed  with  an  exposure  of  one  hour,  the  plates  being  some- 
thing more  than  two  degrees  square.  From  one  to  two  thousand 
stars  are  shown  to  each  cquare  degree  with  this  exposure,  using 
dry  plates.  On  these  plates  three  separate  exposures  of  an  hour 
each,  are  given,  the  instrument  being  moved  between  each  ex- 
posure, so  as  to  change  the  position  of  the  image  on  the  plate  about 
five  seconds  of  arc  each  time.  The  three  images  of  the  same  star 
thus  form  a  little  triangle.  By  means  of  this  telescope,  a  new  and 
very  faint  nebula  has  been  discovered  in  the  Pleiades,  which  would 
never  have  been  discovered,  if  we  depended  on  the  eye  alone.  Ad- 
mirable photographs  of  Saturn  have  been  taken  by  direct  enlarge- 
ment of  the  primary  image,  through  a  non-achromatic  eye-piece, 
which  gives  a  magnifying  power  of  eleven  times.  Hyperion,  the 
faintest  satellite  of  Saturn,  a  difficult  object  in  the  twenty-six 
inch  telescope,  at  Washington,  has  been  photographed  with  an  ex- 
posure of  thirty  minutes,  and  the  satellite  of  Neptune  can  be  taken 
in  any  part  of  its  orbit,  as  it  is  situated  at  present.  With  an  ex- 
posure of  one  hour  the  eleventh  and  fifteenth  magnitude  stars  have 
an  actual  diameter  of  about  1-1, 000th  of  an  inch,  that  is  in  arc 
about  one  and  one-half  seconds.  Stars  of  the  fifth  and  sixth  magni- 


ASTRONOMICAL  PHOTOGRAPHY.  91 

tude  are  about  one  minute  in  diameter,  with  long  exposures.  With 
a  properly  limited  exposure,  these  also  are  of  extremely  minute 
dimensions. 

The  proper  exposure  for  a  first  magnitude  star,  like  Siriits^  or 
Vega,  is  not  more  than  5-1000  of  a  second.  For  a  star  just  visible 
to  the  naked  eye,  half  a  second  is  sufficient.  For  stars  of  the  tenth 
magnitude,  twenty  seconds;  of  the  twelfth,  two  minutes;  of  the 
thirteenth,  five  minutes;  of  the  fourteenth,  thirteen  minutes;  and 
for  the  faintest  visible,  an  hour  and  twenty-three  minutes.  These 
results  are,  of  course,  a  minimum,  and  also  they  are  but  approxi- 
mate. 

As  far  as  is  known,  the  growth  of  the  image  of  a  star  upon  the 
photographic  plate  is  equal,  and  concentric  with  the  point  of  the 
plate,  on  which  the  center  of  the  star  falls. 

At  the  suggestion  of  the  Director  of  the  Paris  observatory  an 
International  Congress  of  Astronomers  was  held  in  Paris  in  April, 
(1887),  to  decide  upon  a  plan  according  to  which  a  series  of  photo- 
graphic charts  of  the  sky  might  be  made  by  a  large  number  of 
observatories  co-operating  on  a  single  plan.  The  conference  wag 
composed  of  many  celebrated  astronomers  and  they  decided  to  ap- 
prove of  the  plan  proposed  by  Admiral  MOUCHEZ.  The  observato- 
ries of  Paris,  Algiers  Toulouse,  Bordeaux,  Melbourne,  Sydney, 
Rio  Janeiro,  La  Plata,  Santiago  de  Chili,  San  Fernando,  and  Mexico 
have  already  agreed  to  join  in  the  work,  and  those  of  Vienna, 
Oxford,  etc.,  may  also  assist. 

The  resolutions  of  the  Congress  maybe  summarized  as  follows: 

I.  A  photographic  chart  of  the  heavens  containing  all  stars  down 
to  the  fourteenth  magnitude  is  to  be  at  once  undertaken,  the  plates 
to  be  in  duplicate. 

II.  A  second  series  of  photographs  with  shorter  exposure  to  in- 
clude stars  of  the  eleventh  magnitude,  is  to  be  made   concurrently 
with  the  first  for  the  purpose  of  forming  a  catalogue,  and  to  deter- 
mine fundamental  positions  in  the  first  series. 

III.  All  the  photographic  plates  are  to  be  prepared  from  the 
same  formula. 

IV.  All  the  photographic  telescopes  are  to  be  like  that  now  at 
the  Paris  observatory. 

There  are  41,000  square  degrees  in  the  whole  heavens,  and  if  six 
square  degrees  can  be  registered  on  a  plate  (with  one  hour's  expos- 
ure), 7,000  such  plates  must  be  made,  requiring  at  least  7,000  hours. 
To  avoid  mistakes,  at  least  two  exposures  must  be  given  for  each 
region,  or  14,000  plates  and  14,000  hours  are  absolutely  necessary. 

If  we  allow  one  hundred  clear  nights  in  a  year  (which  is  a  fair 
allowance  for  all  observatories,  except  the  Lick  observatory,  where 
we  can  count  on  at  least  two  hundred),  it  would  require  one 
hundred  and  forty  years  at  any  one  observatory  to  do  this  work,  or 
fourteen  at  ten  observatories  taking  one  plate  per  night. 


92  ASTRONOMICAL   PHOTOGRAPHY. 

Although  it  seems  presumptuous  to  differ  from  the  conclusions  of 
a  congress  of  astronomers  so  eminent  as  those  who  formed  the  Paris 
conference  yet  I  personally  have  grave  doubts  whether  the  strict 
adherence  to  a  plan,  which  is  indispensable  to  success,  can  be  main- 
tained at  so  many  different  establishments  for  a  period  of  even  five 
years,  within  which  time  the  congress  hopes  to  complete  the 
work.  Photographic  processes  are  now  changing  with  wonderful 
rapidity  and  the  methods  of  even  two  years  ago  are  to-day  practi- 
cally obsolete. 

The  whole  subject  still  seems  to  me  to  be  in  too  unsettled  a  state 
to  warrant  an  international  undertaking  of  such  magnitude,  at 
present.  A  number  of  years  must  perhaps  be  spent  in  tentative 
researches  before  the  rght  paths  are  struck  out.  I  give  some  of  the 
most  obvious  directions  for  these  trials  in  what  follows. 

The  two  hundred  and  sixty  or  more  small  planets  (asteroids) 
which  lie  between  Mars  and  Jupiter  have  all  been  discovered  by  the 
slow  process  of  comparing  a  star  map,  night  after  night,  with  the 
heavens.  A  star  not  on  the  map  is  either  an  omitted  star  to  be 
inserted,  or  a  minor  planet,  known  or  unknown.  A  photographic 
objective  of  twelve  inches  aperture  will  show  a  trail  for  a  star  of  the 
magnitude  of  the  brighter  asteroids  with  an  exposure  of  half  an 
hour.  An  hour's  exposure  will  probably  show  the  trail  of  the 
faintest  asteroids  (12-13  magnitude).  One  of  the  immediate  results 
of  the  application  of  photography  will  undoubtedly  be  to  greatly 
increase  the  number  of  known  asteroids. 

There  are  reasons  to  believe  in  the  existence  of  a  major  planet 
exterior  to  Neptune.  If  such  a  planet  exists,  it  is  not  likely  to  be 
brighter  than  the  tenth  magnitude,  and  its  motion  will  be  very  slow. 
Hence  it  is  unlikely,  at  least,  that  such  a  planet  can  be  discovered 
by  its  trail  on  the  plate.  The  method  of  three  exposures  on  the 
same  plate  employed  at  Paris  probably  might  not  disclose  the 
existence  of  a  trans -Neptunian  planet,  though  it  would  suffice  for 
the  detection  of  Neptune  itself  in  most  parts  of  its  orbit.  Probably 
the  surest  way  to  detect  such  a  body,  if  it  exists,  would  be  to  take 
photographs  of  the  same  region  on  successive  days.  Such  plates 
would  then  have  to  be  laboriously  compared,  star  by  star.  Doubt- 
ful cases  would  require  a  third  night's  work  to  be  done  in  order  to 
decide.  A  blue-print  of  two  such  plates  will  enable  all  the  brighter 
stars  to  be  quickly  compared  and  disposed  of.  The  real  labor  will  then 
be  confined  to  the  stars  less  bright  than  the  faintest  which  can  be 
blue-printed. 

The  problem  of  the  constitution  of  the  stellar  universe  must  be 
studied,  it  seems,  by  some  kind  of  celestial  statistics  derived  from 
counts  or  gauges  of  the  stars.  Nearly  all  the  conclusions  we 
have  so  far  reached,  are  based  on  the  counts  made  by  Sir 
WILLIAM  HERSCHEL.  I  have  myself  spent  much  time  in  continuing 
these.  All  such  work  is  now  useless.  Photographic  maps  will  give 


ASTRONOMICAL  PHOTOGRAPHY.  93 

us  all  the  requisite  data,  and  will  throw  much  light,  too,  on  another 
closely  connected  problem — the  extinction  of  light  in  space — pro- 
vided, only  that  all  negatives  taken  from  this  object  are  made 
strictly  comparable  in  every  respect.  This  proviso  is  of  the  utmost 
importance,  and  is  very  difficult  to  be  lived  up  to  in  any  work  done 
by  co-operating  observatories.  It  is  just  possible  that  photometric 
measures  of  the  photographs  of  a  very  eccentric  asteroid  can  now  be 
made  with  sufficient  delicacy  to  settle  the  question  whether  light  is, 
or  is  not,  extinguished  in  space. 

The  precision  of  the  photographic  images  of  stars  is  so  great  that 
there  is  no  doubt  that  measures  of  the  negatives  of  double  stars,  of 
star  clusters  and  groups,  will,  at  least  in  most  instances,  take  the 
place  of  the  painful  and  laborious  micrometric  measures  which  are 
now  employed  by  observers.  The  photographs  have  their  own 
errors,  and  many  of  them ;  but  these  are  all  susceptible  of  in- 
vestigation. 

The  shrinkage  of  the  gelatine  films  of  the  negatives  is  likely  to 
prove  a  grave  difficulty  in  the  application  of  photography  to  exact 
astronomy,  but  this  can  always  be  detected  by  photographing  a  net 
work  of  lines  on  glass.  Very  serious  difficulties  of  this  kind  have 
lately  been  met  with  by  Professor  PRITCHARD,  of  Oxford,  in  his 
researches  on  the  (photographic)  parallax  of  61  Cygni. 

But  photographic  plates  have  also  many  capital  advantages.  For 
example,  the  photographic  impress  of  a  star  gives  really  its  mean  or 
average  position,  freed  from  those  accidental  and  transitory  vari- 
ations of  place  which  are  due  to  variations  of  atmospheric  refraction 
— a  constant  source  of  error.  The  saving  of  time  is  also  important. 
An  exposure  of  an  hour  has  given  (at  the  Paris  observatory)  a  map  of 
5, 000  stars  in  four  square  degrees  in  the  constellation  Cygnus.  The  best 
maps  we  now  have  give  170  of  the  brightest  stars  only,  in  this  place. 
To  map  5,000  stars  by  the  eye  alone  would  require  several  years. 
The  writer  spent  all  the  time  he  could  spare  from  routine  obser- 
vations during  four  years  with  the  twenty-six  inch  equatorial,  at 
Washington,  in  a  study  of  the  Nebula  of  Orion.  Every  important 
result  reached  by  that  study,  and  very  many  not  comprised  in  it, 
was  attained  by  Mr.  COMMON'S  photograph,  (subsequently  taken), 
which  required  an  exposure  of  forty  minutes  only. 

Another  important  advantage  of  the  new  methods  is  that  they  do 
not  require  highly  skilled  observers.  It  required  a  BESSEL  or  a 
STKUVE  to  determine  the  parallax  of  61  Cygni  or  of  Vega.  But 
photographic  exposures  can  be  made,  and  glass  negatives  success- 
fully measured  by  well  trained  assistants,  after  the  plan  of  obser- 
vation has  once  been  thoroughly  thought  out.  This  is  no  slight 
benefit.  The  skill  of  the  astronomer  is  reserved  for  real  difficulties, 
and  the  merely  laborious  work  can  be  done  in  duplicate,  if  necessary, 
by  younger  men. 


94  ASTRONOMICAL   PHOTOGRAPHY. 

Again,  the  chemical  plate  is  sensitive  to  a  whole  series  of  rays, 
which  produce  no  effect  on  the  human  eye.  Only  half  of  the  faint- 
est stars  of  e.ny  photographic  map,  are  visible  to  the  eye  in  the 
same  telescope.  Photographic  methods  thus  increase  the  range  of 
our  vision  immensely  ;  they  also  increase  its  sharpness.  The  pho- 
tographic plate  will  register  the  sum  of  all  the  impressions  it  re- 
ceives. It  does  not  tire,  as  the  eye  does,  and  refuse  to  pay  attention 
for  more  than  a  small  fraction  of  a  second,  but  it  will  faithfully 
record  every  ray  of  light  that  falls  upon  it,  even  for  hours,  and 
finally  it  will  produce  its  automatic  register,  so  that  the  eye  can 
see  it,  and  so  that  this  can  be  measured,  if  necessary,  again  and 
again.  The  permanence  of  the  records  is  of  the  greatest  impor- 
tance, and  so  far  as  we  know  it  is  complete,  when  the  best  modern 
plates  are  employed.  We  can  hand  down  to  our  successors  a  pic- 
ture of  the  sky,  locked  in  a  box.  What  would  we  not  give  for 
such  a  record  bequeathed  to  us  by  HIPPARCHUS  or  by  GALILEO  ! 

It  will  be  of  interest  to  briefly  state  how  far  the  equipment  of 
the  Lick  observatory  will  fit  it  to  engage  in  this  important  branch 
of  research.  It  is  known  that  the  situation  of  the  observatory  is 
the  finest  in  the  world,  both  as  to  the  number  of  clear  days,  and  as 
to  the  quality  of  steady  atmosphere.  The  observatory  will  be  com- 
pletely equipped  for  all  micrometric  work,  and  also  for  all  spectro- 
scopic  researches.  We  may  summarize  its  facilities  for  excursions 
in  the  fields  of  astronomical  photography  as  follows  :  We  have  a 
photographic  objective  33-inches  in  aperture,  which  is  six  times 
more  powerful  than  any  objective  now  made ;  the  largest  Paris 
glass  is  13  inches  in  aperture.  This  is  mounted  in  the  most  perfect 
manner,  and  we  can  employ  the  12-inch  Clark  telescope,  now  in  the 
north  dome,  as  a  pointing  telescope  for  the  large  objective.  The 
12-inch  telescope  will  be  mounted  alongside  the  other.  An  elec- 
trically controlled  driving  clock  will  keep  the  two  telescopes  accu- 
rately directed  during  the  exposure.  Our  objective  will  collect  six 
times  the  light  of  any  other  photographic  telescope  now  made.  We 
should  therefore  be  able  to  photograph  fainter  objects.  The  focal 
length  of  the  photographic  combination  will  be  about  550  inches, 
and  1"  on  the  plate  will  therefore  be  about  0.003  inches.  This  is  a 
quantity  whose  J^Q"  Pa*"t  can  be  measured. 

A  single  exposure  will  give  us  a  map  of  the  sky  comprising 
four  square  degrees  on  a  plate  22x22  inches.  A  few  minutes  will 
impress  on  this  plate  a  permanent  record  of  the  position  and  bright- 
ness of  all  the  stars  visible  in  even  the  largest  telescopes.  A  com- 
parison of  two  such  plates  taken  on  different  nights  will  point  out 
any  changes  which  might  easily  escape  the  most  minute  observa- 
tion by  other  methods.  The  sun's  image  unmagnified  will  be  five 
inches  in  diameter ;  a  large  sunspot  will  be  the  size  of  one's  finger 


ASTRONOMICAL  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

nail.  Beautiful  photographs  of  the  planets  can  be  taken  so  as  to 
register  with  perfect  accuracy  the  features  of  their  surfaces.  Comets 
and  nebulae  can  be  studied  at  leisure  from  their  automatic  registers 
as  one  studies  a  copper-plate  engraving.  The  variations  of  refrac- 
tion from  the  horizon  to  the  zenith  can  be  made  to  record  them- 
selves for  measurement.  There  is  absolutely  no  end  to  the  problems 
lying  close  at  hand,  and  their  number  and  their  importance  will 
develop  with  time.  We  are  merely  at  the  threshold  of  this  subject. 
There  is  no  question  but  that  the  large  telescope  with  its  two  objec- 
tives in  its  absolutely  perfect  site  is  the  most  important  astronomical 
instrument  in  the  world.  Mr.  LICK'S  desire  has  been  fulfilled  so 
far,  and  more  than  fulfilled.  But  a  mere  instrument  is  nothing  but 
a  splendid  monument  (to  more  than  one  man)  without  intelligent 
use.  Californians  must  not  point  at  this  telescope  and  say  that  it 
is  the  largest  in  the  world,  but  it  must  also  be  their  effort  to  make 
it  the  most  useful. 

Although  the  whole  plan  of  the  observatory  has  been  made  with 
direct  reference  to  keeping  its  running  expenses  low,  it  is  clear  that 
the  work  of  our  observers  must  be  concentrated  on  the  large  equa- 
torial, and  even  then  that  their  energies  will  not  be  sufficient  to 
utilize  every  moment.  It  is  not  our  intention  to  jealously  guard  the 
immense  scientific  opportunity  for  ourselves,  for  California,  or  even  for 
the  United  States.  The  real  gift  of  Mr.  LICK  was  to  the  world.  We 
mean  to  put  the  large  telescope  at  the  disposition  of  the  world,  by  in- 
viting its  most  distinguished  astronomers  to  visit  us,  one  at  a  time, 
and  to  give  them  the  use  of  the  instrument  during  certain  specified 
hours  of  the  twenty-four.  Each  day  there  will  be  certain  hours 
set  apart  when  the  observatory  staff  will  relinquish  the  use  of  the 
equatorial  to  distinguished  specialists  who  will  come  upon  our  invi- 
tation from  the  United  States  and  from  Europe,  to  solve  or  to  attack 
some  one  of  the  many  unsolved  problems  of  astronomy.  In  this 
way  we  hope  to  make  the  gift  of  Mr.  LICK  one  which  is  truly  a 
gift  to  science,  and  not  merely  a  gift  to  California  and  to  its  Uni- 
versity. 

Even  under  such  circumstances  it  will  be  impossible  to  utilize  the 
instrumental  outfit  to  the  full.  It  was  clearly  the  duty  of  the  Lick 
Trustees  to  make  this  observatory  perfect  in  every  respect,  and  to 
provide  it  with  all  the  instruments  necessary  to  a  complete  equip- 
ment. This  they  have  done  as  economically  and  wisely  as  they  could. 
The  instruments  are  all  necessary,  and  they  are  mounted  in  the  most 
perfect  manner.  Each  one  is  directly  subordinate  to  the  large 
equatorial  and  accessory  to  it.  Nothing  has  been  purchased,  and  no 
work  has  been  done,  which  does  not  directly  tend  to  make  the 
observations  made  by  the  large  equatorial  either  more  complete,  or 
more  immediately  useful.  The  cost  of  the  whole  observatory  may 
fairly  ba  said  to  be  the  cost  of  the  great  telescope  in  place,  and  en- 
tirely ready  for  work. 


XI.— CLOCKS  AND  TIME-KEEPING. 


It  ia  not  so  very  long  since  the  regulation  of  time  in  the  United 
States,  and  indeed  all  over  the  world,  was  considered  a  very  minor 
matter.  I  have  been  informed  by  a  naval  officer  now  living,  that 
when  he  was  on  duty  at  the  Norfolk  Navy  Yard,  the  only  time-piece 
depended  upon  to  regulate  the  hours  of  hundreds  of  Government 
workmen  was  a  sun-dial  situated  in  the  grounds.  As  is  well  known, 
a  sun-dial  gives  apparent  solar  time,  which  is  sometimes  fifteen 
minutes  fast  of  mean  time — the  time  ordinarily  used — and  some- 
times sixteen  minutes  slow.  This  variation  of  half  an  hour  apparently 
made  no  difference  to  the  officers  of  a  government  service  only  a 
few  years  ago.  The  introduction  of  railways,  the  growth  of  large 
cities  and  the  increasing  value  of  the  moments  of  men  of  business, 
have  created  quite  another  state  of  things.  The  public  has  been 
educated  by  these  means;  but  perhaps  more  rapidly  and  effectively 
by  the  use  of  the  telegraph  between  cities  separated  by  many 
degrees  of  longitude.  A  telegram  from  the  House  of  Commons,  in 
London,  at  one  o'clock  in  the  morning,  reaches  San  Francisco  in 
time  to  be  printed  in  the  later  editions  of  the  evening  papers  of  the 
day  before.  Railway  travelling,  which  is  so  common  in  America, 
where  distances  are  large  and  the  public  highly  intelligent,  has  also 
familiarized  us  with  the  fact  that  there  are  different  standards  of 
time  and  that  these  change  from  place  to  place.  In  November, 
1884,  all  the  railway  times  of  the  United  States  were  suddenly 
changed  from  their  old  local  values  to  one  set  of  uniform  stan- 
dard values,  and  this  was  done  without  any  apparent  friction 
or  annoyance;  yet  the  interests  of  thousands  of  citizens  were 
directly  affected.  I  believe  there  is  no  other  country  in  the  world 
which  could  take  such  a  step  with  such  complete  intelligence  on 
the  part  of  its  citizens.  Up  to  1884  each  railroad  had  a  standard  of 
time  of  its  own.  For  instance,  the  Pennsylvania  Railway  was  run 
on  Harrisburg  time  between  Philadelphia  and  Harrisburg,  and  at 
that  place  a  sudden  change  was  made  and  the  rest  of  the  journey 
to  Pittsburgh  was  accomplished  on  Pittsburgh  time.  Similarly  the 
New  York  Central  was  run  on  Poughkeepsie  and  Rochester  time  in 
its  different  divisions,  and  so  with  other  railways.  This  at  last 
grew  to  be  an  intolerable  nuisance,  and  in  searching  for  the  remedy 
the  Railway  Convention,  which  met  in  1883  in  Chicago,  settled  on 
a  very  philosophic  and  simple  plan.  It  has  its  disadvantages,  of 
which  we  need  not  speak  here,  since  the  system  has  already  become 
firmly  rooted  and  since  its  advantages  are  many  and  obvious. 
(97)  .  (vii; 


98  CLOCKS   AND   TIME-KEEPING. 

Standard  time,  as  it  is  understood  in  the  United  States,  is  a  time 
of  which  the  minutes  and  seconds  are  exactly  the  same  as  those  of 
a  standard  mean  time  clock  at  the  Royal  Observatory,  Greenwich, 
England.  The  hour  only  is  different.  Inter-colonial  time  serves  for 
the  British  Provinces  about  New  Brunswick  and  for  the  extreme 
East  of  the  United  States  ;  it  is  four  hours  slower  than  Greenwich 
time.  Eastern  time  is  exactly  live  hours  slower  than  Greenwich  time 
and  corresponds  nearly  to  the  local  time  of  Philadelphia.  Central 
time  is  six  hours  slower  than  Greenwich  time  and  corresponds  nearly 
to  the  meridian  of  St.  Louis  and  "New  Orleans.  Mountain  time  is 
seven  hours  slower  than  Greenwich  timo  and  corresponds  roughly 
with  the  local  time  of  the  meridian  of  Denver,  while  Pacific  time  is 
eight  hours  slower  than  Greenwich  time  and  corresponds  approxi- 
mately to  the  local  time  of  Sacramento.  As  we  on  this  Coast  are 
more  particularly  interested  in  Pacific  time,  I  give  the  exact  figures  : 
The  local  time  of  the  astronomical  station  of  the  Coast  Survey  in 
the  Plaza  in  San  Francisco  is  8  hours,  9  minutes,  38.35  seconds 
slower  than  Greenwich  time.  The  local  time  of  Mount  Hamilton 
(Lick  Observatory)  is  8  hours,  6  minutes,  34.3  seconds  slower 
than  Greenwich  time.  So  that  Mount  Hamilton  local  time  is  3 
minutes,  4  seconds  faster  than  San  Francisco  time.  All  the 
railways  in  California  run  on  Pacific  time,  therefore  this  time  is 
9  minutes,  38.4  seconds  faster  than  San  Francisco  time  and  6 
minutes,  34. 3  seconds  faster  than  Lick  Observatory  mean  time. 

When  an  observation  is  taken  at  Mount  Hamilton  it  determines 
the  exact  local  time  of  the  meridian  of  the  instrument  with  which 
the  time  was  observed.  The  standard  clock  is  not  kept,  however, 
to  this  local  time,  but  it  is  regulated  so  as  to  be  6  minutes,  34. 3 
seconds  faster  than  this.  That  is,  it  is  set  to  Pacific  standard  time 
and  kept  at  this  point. 

The  work  of  astronomers  is  usually  very  far  removed  from  what 
is  called  practical  utility.  The  American  public  is  highly  interested 
in  all  scientific  results  which  can  be  stated  in  popular  form,  includ- 
ing those  in  astronomy,  but  there  is  almost  only  one  point  where 
the  work  of  astronomical  observatories  touches  the  business  interests 
of  communities  directly.  This  point  is  in  the  distribution  of  time 
by  electric  signals  from  an  observatory  to  railroad  and  telegraph 
companies,  to  city  and  tower  clocks,  to  private  business  firms  and  to 
manufacturing  and  other  corporations,  for  commercial  purposes. 
Nearly  every  observatory  of  importance  takes  great  pains  to  see 
that  the  cities  and  individuals  in  its  vicinity  are  fully  supplied  with 
correct  time.  The  advantages  of  these  observatory  time-services 
are  manifold  and  scarcely  need  be  pointed  out.  A  high  degree  of 
accuracy  and  uniformity  is  secured  by  them,  and  an  immense 
amount  of  petty  vexation  is  spared.  Anyone  who  has  looked  at  the 
public  clocks  of  San  Francisco,  which  often  vary  five  to  six  minutes 
between  themselves,  and  especially  anyone  who  has  lost  an  ap- 


CLOCKS   AND   TIME-KEEPING.  99 

pointment  through  this  variation,  can  appreciate  this  point.  In  all 
sea-ports  the  chronometers  of  merchant  vessels  can  be  well  regulated 
and  rated  by  the  dropping  of  a  time  ball  by  an  observatory  ;  and 
this  is  a  valuable  indirect  aid  to  navigation.  A  less  obvious  but 
not  less  important  consideration  is  the  connection  thus  formed 
between  the  more  abstruse  work  of  the  observatory  and  the  ordinary 
affairs  of  every  day  life,  which  brings  continually  before  the  public 
mind  the  practical  application  of  astronomical  science  and  inspires 
it  with  confidence  in  the  precision  of  scientific  methods.  The 
increased  punctuality  which  is  insured  by  the  knowledge  of  the 
correct  time  is  a  positive  moral  benefit  to  the  community.  Punctu- 
ality is  one  of  the  minor  mechanical  virtues,  but  it  is  no  less  a  virtue. 
It  has  been  said  that  punctuality  is  the  politeness  of  kings;  if  so,  it 
is  positively  obligatory  upon  us  common  people. 

THE  LICK   OBSERVATORY  TIME   SERVICE. 

One  of  the  first  works  undertaken  at  the  Lick  Observatory  was  to 
fit  it  to  be  the  center  of  a  system  of  time  distribution  for  the  sur- 
rounding country,  and  to  provide  the  railways  radiating  from  San 
Francisco  with  time  signals  which  should  traverse  the  immense 
distances  separating  California  from  the  observatories  of  the  Eastern 
States.  In  the  early  part  of  1886  I  made  an  arrangement  for 
supplying  the  time  signals  automatically  from  the  clocks  of  the 
Lick  Observatory  to  the  Southern  Pacific  and  other  railway  com- 
panies, as  well  as  to  jewellers  in  San  Jose.  These  arrangements 
were  authorized  by  the  Lick  trustees,  who  had  a  full  sense  of  their 
duty  to  the  community  to  provide  such  service.  I  have  thought 
that  it  might  be  interesting  to  give  a  popular  account  of  exactly 
how  this  work  is  done,  in  order  that  the  public  at  large  may  have 
confidence  in  the  service  and  that  they  may  appreciate  the  amount 
of  trouble  that  is  taken  to  see  that  the  time  signals  are  correct.  In 
order  to  send  out  these  signals  from  the  observatory,  a  special  clock 
was  constructed  by  HOWARD  &  Co.,  of  Boston,  fitted  with  an 
electric  apparatus  for  making  signals  over  any  telegraph  line.  This 
clock  is  kept  to  standard  time  by  means  of  observations  with  the 
transit  instrument.  The  time  kept  by  the  clock  is  mean  solar  time  and 
the  clock  can  be  regulated  by  observations  of  the  sun ;  but  as  the 
sun  only  crosses  the  meridian  once  a  day  and  therefore  can  only  be 
observed  once,  it  is  found  more  convenient  in  practice  to  observe 
stars,  of  which  many  are  available  whose  positions  are  as  accurately 
known  as  that  of  the  sun.  The  theory  of  determining  the  time  by 
transit  observations  is  very  simple.  The  transit  instrument  is 
placed  exactly  in  the  meridian — that  is,  so  that  when  it  is  revolved 
it  will  describe  a  North  and  South  line  in  the  sky.  At  the  instant 
that  a  star  of  known  position  is  crossing  the  meridian  on  its  way 
from  rising  toward  setting,  the  exact  moment  by  the  clock  at  which 
the  star  crosses  a  spider  line  stretched  across  the  eye-piece  of  the 


100  CLOCKS  AND  TIME-KEEPING. 

transit  instrument  is  noted.  Knowing  the  position  of  the  star,  we 
know  by  a  calculation  exactly  the  time  at  which  the  star  ought  to  be 
on  this  thread.  Looking  at  the  clock  we  observe  the  minute, 
second  and  tenth  of  a  second  by  the  clock  at  which  it  actually  is  011 
the  middle  wire.  The  difference  between  these  two  quantities  gives 
us  the  correction  of  the  clock  as  derived  from  the  observation  of  this 
particular  star.  Several  stars  are  observed  on  each  night  in  order 
to  get  from  their  average  a  more  correct  determination  than  could 
be  obtained  from  any  one,  and  in  order  to  correct  for  any  slight 
deviations  in  the  position  of  the  transit  instrument  itself  with 
respect  to  the  meridian.  In  this  way  on  each  night  of  observation 
the  error  of  the  clock  is  determined  accurately  within  two  or  three 
hundredths  of  a  second  of  time.  Such  observations  as  have  been 
described  are  made  every  two  or  three  nights  upon  a  set  of  four  or 
more  stars.  The  clocks  we  use  can  be  trusted  to  run  accurately 
enough  in  the  interval  between  observations  to  insure  that  the  error 
of  the  time  signals  shall  be  at  no  time  greater  than  two  or  three 
tenths  of  a  second,  but  for  greater  security  the  standard  clock  is 
daily  compared  with  each  one  of  four  other  astronomical  clocks  and 
with  two  chronometers,  so  that  even  if  the  weather  should  be 
cloudy,  we  could  depend  upon  the  average  running  of  these  time- 
pieces for  a  much  longer  period  than  two  or  three  days.  To  give  an 
idea  of  the  accuracy  of  running  of  these  clocks  I  quote  from  the 
observatory  register  of  1887.  It  should  be  understood  that  these 
finer  clocks  are  allowed  to  run  as  they  will,  and  that  their  errors 
are  allowed  for  by  a  calculation,  instead  of  meddling  with  the  hands 
and  correcting  their  indications  by  small  quantities.  This  clock, 
which  was  made  by  DENT  in  England  and  cost  $550,  is  of  the  finest 
possible  construction.  Watchmakers  will  understand  this  when 
I  say  that  the  pinions  have  eighteen  leaves.  On  the  1st  of  March, 
1887,  it  was  .08  of  a  second  fast ;  on  the  4th  it  was  .06  of  a  second 
fast ;  on  the  6th  it  was  .08  of  a  second  fast ;  on  the  8th  it  was  .  13  of  a 
second  fast,  and  so  on  until  the  7th  of  April,  when  it  was  .02  of  a  sec- 
ond fast.  That  is,  between  March  1st  and  April  7th  its  total  varia- 
tion was  .06  of  a  second.  The  other  clocks  of  the  observatory  are 
practically  as  good  as  this.  It  will  be  evident,  as  the  time  at  the 
observatory  is  known  from  each  night's  observations  to  about  .03  of 
a  second,  that  it  can  be  well  kept  between  the  observations  by  means 
of  admirable  clocks  like  these. 

HOW   THE  TIME  IS   SENT  OUT   FROM   THE   OBSERVATORY. 

The  next  question  is :  How  do  we  transmit  the  time  from  the 
observatory  to  the  railway  station  in  San  Jose  ?  This  is  done  auto- 
matically by  one  of  the  clocks  itself.  This  particular  clock  is  not 
allowed  to  accumulate  any  error,  but  it  always  kept  exactly  right. 
At  9  o'clock  in  the  morning  of  each  day  it  is  compared  with  the 
other  clocks  and  its  error  determined;  and  if  any  exists,  this  is 


CLOCKS   AND   TIME-KEEPING.  101  < 

corrected  by  placing  small  weights  upon  the  pendulum,  so  that  in 
a  short  time — less  than  an  hour  usually — the  clock  indicates  exact 
Pacific  time.  Inside  of  this  clock  there  is  a  simple  arrangement  by 
which  an  electric  current  is  interrupted  every  two  seconds  of  the 
clock.  This  electric  signal  is  sent  over  our  own  telegraph  line  to  the 
Southern  Pacific  railroad  station  at  San  Jose  and  received  on  the 
telegraph  instrument  there,  precisely  as  if  the  beats  made  by 
the  clock  automatically  had  been  made  by  a  telegraph  operator 
at  Mount  Hamilton.  In  order  to  distinguish  the  end  of  each 
minute  one  of  these  beats  is  always  omitted,  namely  that  one  which 
corresponds  to  the  58th  second  of  each  minute.  That  is,  if  you  were 
listening  to  the  signals  in  the  railway  station  you  would  hear  the 
clock  beat  0  seconds,  2  seconds,  4  seconds,  6,  8,  10  etc.,  and  finally 
52,  54,  56,  not  58  and  then  60.  So  that  if  you  knew  that  your 
watch  was  not  more  than  half  a  minute  wrong,  you  would  stand 
before  the  telegraph  instrument  at  San  Jose  with  your  watch  in 
your  hand  and  listen  for  a  pause  longer  than  usual  in  the  beats 
which  were  being  repeated  from  our  clock.  When  this  long  pause 
occurred,  you  would  observe  the  second  hand  of  your  watch;  and  the 
first  dot  that  came  on  the  telegraph  instrument  after  the  long  pause 
would  mark  the  beginning  of  a  minute.  But  you  may  not  always 
know  the  error  of  your  watch  so  closely  as  this,  and  the  clock  is 
arranged  to  automatically  leave  out  the  52nd,  54th,  56th  and  58th 
beats  of  every  fifth  minute ;  that  is,  of  course,  every  minute  whose 
number  ends  with  0  or  5.  Suppose,  for  example,  that  you  knew 
that  your  watch  was  within  two  minutes  of  correct  time  about  three 
or  four  minutes  before  10  o'clock  in  the  morning.  In  order  to  know 
exactly  its  error,  you  would  have  to  stand  again  before  the  telegraph 
instrument  and  listen  to  the  beats  of  the  Mount  Hamilton  clock  as 
they  are  repeated  until  you  heard  a  pause  in  the  beats  which  was 
longer  than  usual,  a  pause,  indeed,  as  long  as  ten  seconds  —  from 
lifty  seconds  to  sixty  seconds.  You  know  that  that  pause  is  at  the 
end  of  the  minute  immediately  preceding  10  o'clock,  and  the  first 
dot  after  this  long  pause,  will  mark  the  beginning  of  the  hour.  The 
method  is  much  simpler  in  practise  than  it  appears  to  be  from  the 
description  and  a  child  can  use  it. 

At  this  telegraphic  instrument  in  San  Jose,  methods  are  provided 
for  repeating  the  beats  of  our  clock  over  four  different  circuits.  One 
of  these  circuits  extends  over  the  Southern  Pacific  line  east  of  the 
bay  to  the  Oakland  mole,  and  every  day  at  12  o'clock  the  beats  of 
the  Mount  Hamilton  clock  are  transmitted  from  San  Jose  over  this 
line  to  the  Oakland  mole.  At  this  point  they  are  received  on  a 
ticker  at  one  end  of  the  table.  At  the  other  end  of  the  table  sits 
an  operator  with  his  hand  on  a  telegraphic  key,  and  he  beats  on 
this  key  in  exact  coincidence  with  the  Mount  Hamilton  clock  sig- 
nals, which  are  thus  sent  over  all  the  lines  of  the  Southern  Pacific 
Company  as  far  east  as  Ogden,  as  far  south  as  El  Paso,  and  as  far 
north  as  Portland. 


102  CLOCKS   AND   TIME-KEEPING. 

Another,  pair  of  points  at  San  Jose  leads  to  the  telephone  office  of 
the  Sunset  Telephone  Company,  and  they  can,  at  will,  allow  a 
ticker  to  beat  in  their  local  office.  If  desired,  this  ticker  can  be 
heard  in  San  Francisco  in  any  telephone.  The  owner  of  the  tele- 
phone has  simply  to  call  the  central  office  and  to  ask  that  the  Mount 
Hamilton  clock  be  placed  in  connection  with  his  telephone.  The 
operator  will  do  this  promptly  and  the  beats  of  the  clock  can  be 
readily  heard,  and  anyone's  watch  can  be  set  in  San  Francisco 
without  difficulty  from  the  audible  beats  of  a  clock  60  miles  distant. 

A  Circular  of  the  Telephone  Company  is  reprinted  here. 

SUNSET  TELEPHONE-TELEGRAPH  co. 
LICK  OBSERVATORY  TIME-SIGNAL. 

Pacific  Standard  Time. 
Post  this  Notice  near  your  Telephone. 

To  hear  the  beats  of  the  Lick  Observatory  Standard  Clock,  call 
the  Central  Office  and  ask  that  the  San  Jose  Operator  put  on  the 
Lick  Observatory  Clock  Signal.  When  this  is  done  the  beats  of 
the  Lick  Observatory  Clock  will  be  heard  every  two  seconds.  At 
the  end  of  every  minute  the  58th  second  is  omitted.  At  the  end  of 
every  5th  minute  (0,  5,  10,  15,  20,  25,  30,  35.  40,  45,  50,  55,  60)  the 
52d,  54th,  56th  and  58th  seconds  are  omitted. 

TO  SET  YOUR  WATCH  RIGHT 

Get  the  beats  of  the  Lick  Observatory  Clock  in  your  telephone  and 
hold  your  watch  where  you  can  see  the  second  hand  ;  listen  to  the 
beats  which  are  heard  every  two  seconds,  until  a  pause  of  more 
than  two  seconds  comes  ;  the  first  dot  after  such  a  pause  begins 
some  minute.  If  the  pause  is  ten  seconds  long,  the  minute  is  one 
of  the  numbered  minutes  of  your  watch-dial. 

Another  pair  of  points  at  San  Jose  to  the  jeweler  shop  of  Mr. 
ALLISON,  a  leading  jeweler,  who  is  establishing  a  local  service  of 
controlled  clocks.  Also,  still  another  pair  of  points  was  intended 
for  use  on  the  South  Pacific  Coast  Railway ;  but  as  this  has  become 
a  portion  of  the  Southern  Pacific  system,  these  are  not  used  at 
present. 

In  this  simple  way  the  standard  time  determined  by  observation 
at  Mount  Hamilton,  is  distributed  to  the  railways  and  used  by  them 
at  every  telegraph  station  between  San  Francisco  and  Ogden,  El 
Paso  and  Portland,  Oregon.  Besides  this,  every  telephone  sub- 
scriber in  San  Francisco  can  use  our  time  by  simply  calling  the 
central  office  to  give  it  to  him. 

The  standard  time  is  regularly  determined  at  the  private  obser- 
vatory of  Professor  DAVIDSON  in  San  Francisco.  At  the  United 


CLOCKS   AND   TIME-KEEPING.  103 

States  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey  office  and  the  Branch  Hydrogra- 
phic  office  the  accurate  time  can  always  be  had.  Messrs.  LARSEN 
and  WILSON,  201  Kearny  street,  have  dropped  a  small  time-ball 
daily  at  noon  for  the  past  ten  years.  Several  of  the  chro- 
nometer makers  in  the  city  also  determine  their  own  time  by 
observations  of  the  sun  with  small  instruments.  For  the  sake  of 
uniformity  it  would  be  better  if  they  took  their  time  from  the  Lick 
observatory  signals  or  from  those  which  are  daily  set  at  noon  by 
the  observatory  at  the  Mare  Island  Navy  Yard.  This  latter  obser- 
vatory is  under  the  charge  of  a  competent  lieutenant  in  the  navy 
who  makes  the  necessary  observations  and  sends  the  signals  which 
drop  the  time-ball  on  Telegraph  Hill  and  regulate  the  clock  in 
the  Merchants'  Exchange. 

At  the  Chabot  observatory  in  Oakland,  Mr.  BURCKHALTER  (who 
is  in  charge)  regularly  determines  the  time  ;  and  during  the  college 
year  the  same  is  done  at  the  Students'  Observatory  of  the  University 
of  California,  by  Professor  SOULE. 

At  any  one  of  the  places  named  some  time -piece  is  kept  running 
nearly  to  standard  time,  and  a  comparison  with  this  time-piece, 
(after  allowing  for  its  small  error)  will  enable  one  to  set  his  watch 
exactly  to  time.  Any  telephone  subscriber  can  at  any  hour  of  the 
day  call  the  Central  office,  and  ask  that  the  Mount  Hamilton  clock 
be  allowed  to  beat  for  5  minutes  on  his  circuit.  The  beats  of  the 
clock  can  also  be  heard  at  the  conversation-room  of  the  Sunset 
Telephone  Company,  in  the  operating-room  of  the  Western  Union 
Telegraph  Company  (at  noon  only)  and  (also  at  noon)  on  a  sounder 
at  the  shop  of  Mr.  McCoNNELL,  618  Market  street.  The  time-ball 
on  Telegraph  Hill  is  dropped  with  accuracy  and  can  be  used  by  all 
who  can  see  it. 

It  will  be  seen  that  we  have  unusual  facilities  for  obtaining 
accurate  time.  A  very  little  observation  of  our  public  clocks  will 
show  that  some  of  them  are  not  regulated  with  sufficient  care. 
Every  public  clock  is,  or  ought  to  be,  under  the  care  of  some 
jeweler,  and  it  should  be  his  pride  as  well  as  his  duty  to  keep  the 
hands  of  its  various  dials  indicating  the  same  time,  and  to  have  the 
time  shown  by  its  hands  and  by  its  bells,  (if  it  strikes)  exactly  and 
precisely  right. 

I  trust  that  I  have  made  it  plain  that  there  is  a  real  value  to  the 
whole  community  in  accurate  time-keeping,  and  that  the  Lick 
Observatory  is  already  doing  it3  best  to  care  for  the  public  interest 
in  this  regard.  Every  railway  train  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains 
runs  more  safely  for  the  observations  which  are  nightly  made  at 
Mount  Hamilton,  and  every  ship-master  who  will  take  the  trouble, 
can  make  a  better  land-fall  at  the  end  of  a  long  voyage  because  the 
observatory  has  fine  instruments,  good  clocks  and  competent  and 
faithful  observers. 


FOG  IN  THE  MOUNTAIN   RANGE 

(104) 


XII.    THE  PRINCIPAL  OBSERVATORIES  OF 
THE  WORLD. 


It  may  fairly  be  assumed  that  the  reader  of  this  hand-book  will 
wish  to  know  something,  at  least,  of  the  other  principal  observatories 
of  the  world,  if  for  no  other  reason  than  to  intelligently  compare 
their  equipment  and  conditions  with  those  of  the  Lick  Observatory. 

For  this  reason  I  have  collected  in  this  place  brief  notices  of  the 
instrumental  outfit,  the  personnel,  etc.,  of  the  chief  observatories 
now  in  existence,  and  give  them  in  this  chapter. 

I  have  made  free  use  of  the  capital  article  on  observatories  written 
by  my  friend  Dr.  DKEYER,  director  of  the  Armagh  Observatory,  for 
the  last  edition  of  the  Encydopcedia  Britannica,  and  I  take  pleasure 
in  referring  those  who  wish  more  extended  information  to  his 
original  article.  It  is  worthy  of  notice  that  the  establishment  of  the 
Lick  Observatory  on  a  high  mountain  has  influenced  the  selection 
of  the  sites  of  several  of  the  later  established  observatories.  I  have 
naturally  given  a  fuller  account  of  American,  and  especially  of 
Calif ornian,  institutions  than  of  others.  It  not  infrequently  happens 
that  in  our  search  for  information  we  neglect  the  most  obvious 
sources.  It  is  also  especially  important  to  Americans  to  realize  the 
vast  instrumental  equipment  of  American  observatories  ;  to  inquire 
why  so  many  of  them  are  comparatively  idle  ;  and  to  reflect  that  a 
few  thousand  dollars  judiciously  expended  in  an  endowment  fund 
for  the  payment  of  skilled  observers  to  use  the  instruments  already 
provided,  will  be  of  more  service  to  astronomy,  and  redound  more  to 
the  credit  of  the  giver,  than  ten  times  the  sum  spent  in  establishing 
one  more  of  the  expensive  observatories  in  which  no  observations 
are  made,  of  which  we  already  have  too  many. 

It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  astronomy  would  not  suffer  if  no 
new  observatory  were  to  be  founded  in  the  United  States  for  the 
next  half  century,  provided  that  a  few  generous  and  far-seeing  men 
would  furnish  the  means  to  keep  our  present  establishments  fully 
active.  The  Lick  Observatory  itself  could  easily  keep  twice  its 
present  staff  of  observers  and  computers  at  work.  A  glance  over 
the  list  of  German  observatories  here  printed  will  show  with  what 
slender  instrumental  equipment  the  greatest  works  have  been 
accomplished.  Co-operation  is  also  a  golden  word.  With  this 
preface,  which  will  seem  the  more  essential  the  more  one  is  familiar 
with  the  facts,  I  proceed  to  give  the  list  of  the  chief  observatories 
of  the  world,  arranging  them  by  countries. 
(105) 


106  THE   PRINCIPAL   OBSERVATORIES   OF   THE   WORLD. 

GREAT   BRITAIN   AND   IRELAND. 

Royal  Observatory  of  Greenwich :  Founded  in  1675  for  the  promotion 
of  astronomy  and  especially  of  navigation.  The  chief  observations 
therefore  have  always  been  devoted  to  the  accurate  determination  of 
the  places  of  the  moon  and  of  the  fundamental  stars.  Since  1873  daily 
photographs  of  the  sun  and  spectroscopic  observations  of  sun  and 
stars  have  been  made.  The  director  is  called  the  astronomer-royal: 
and  the  astronomers -royal  have  been  some  of  the  most  noted  men 
of  England,  namely  FLAMSTEED,  HALLEY,  BRADLEY,  MASKELYNE, 
POND,  and  Sir  GEORGE  AIRY  (1835—1881).  The  present  astronomer- 
royal  is  W.  H.  M.  CHRISTIE,  who  succeeded  Sir  GEORGE  AIRY  in 
1881.  At  present  the  staff  consists  of  the  director,  nine  astronomers 
and  a  large  number  of  computers.  The  annual  expenses  of  the 
observatory  are  about  $42,000.  The  principal  instruments  are  the 
LASSELL  reflecting  telescope  of  24  inches  aperture  ;  a  refractor  by 
MERZ  of  12.8  inches  aperture  ;  a  meridian-circle  of  8  inches  aperture ; 
an  alt-azimuth  of  4  inches  aperture  ;  with  photographic,  meteorolog- 
ical and  other  instruments  in  great  variety.  A  daily  time-signal 
is  sent  all  over  England,  and  time-balls  are  dropped  at  various  sea- 
ports. A  meteorological  and  magnetic  observatory  has  been  main- 
tained since  1838. 

The  observations  since  1836  have  been  published  annually,  with 
commendable  promptness,  in  large  quarto  volumes  and  freely  dis- 
tributed to  other  observatories  and  to  men  of  science.  It  is  truer 
now  than  when  DELAMBRE  said  it  half  a  century  ago,  that  if  the 
whole  work  of  all  observatories  save  that  of  Greenwich  alone  were 
irrevocably  lost,  the  entire  science  of  astronomy  could  be  recovered 
from  the  Greenwich  observations. 

Oxford ;  the  Raddiffe  Observatory  :  It  was  founded  in  1771.  Since 
1839  observations  have  been  regularly  made  and  published  in  octavo 
by  the  Radcliffe  observer  and  his  assistants.  (There  are  now  3 
assistants  employed. )  The  instruments  are  mostly  small,  but  they 
have  been  used  with  great  advantage  to  astronomy  by  the  able 
observers  who  have  presided  over  this  establishment — namely 
JOHNSON,  MAIN  and  STONE. 

Oxford  University  Observatory  :  was  founded  in  1875  ;  the  Savilian 
Professor,  Dr.  PRITCHARD,  is  the  director,  who  is  aided  by  two 
assistants.  The  chief  instruments  are  a  12^-inch  refractor  by 
GRUBB  and  a  13-inch  reflector  made  and  presented  by  WARREN  DE 
LA  RUE.  Celestial  photometry  and  photography  are  especially 
attended  to.  The  observations  are  regularly  published  in  quarto. 

Cambridge  University  Observatory:  This  observatory  was  founded 
in  1820  and  under  its  noted  directors,  AIRY,  CHALLIS  and  ADAMS 
has  done  most  valuable  work.  The  chief  instruments  are  a  CAU- 
€iioix  refractor  of  11  ^-inch  aperture  and  a  fine  meridian  circle  by 
SIMMS  (8  inches).  There  are  two  or  more  assistants.  The  obser- 
vations (1828 — 1865)  are  printed  in  21  quarto  volumes. 


THE   PRINCIPAL   OBSERVATORIES   OF   THE   WORLD.  107 

Liverpool  (Birkenhead)  Observatory:  Founded  in  1838  and  chiefly 
devoted  to  a  time  service  for  Liverpool,  and  to  the  investigation  of 
the  rates  of  ships'  chronometers. 

Kew  Observatory:  Established  in  1842.  This  is  the  central  meteoro- 
logical observatory  of  Great  Britain.  Daily  photographs  of  the  sun 
were  taken  from  1863  to  1872. 

Royal  Observatory  of  Ediriburg:  Founded  in  1811.  The  Royal 
Astronomer  for  Scotland  is  director  and  at  present  he  has  two 
assistants.  T.  HENDERSON  (Director  from  1833  to  1845)  made  and 
published  a  most  valuable  and  accurate  series  of  observations  of 
star  positions.  Observations  of  subterranean  temperature  have 
been  carried  on  since  1837,  and  the  present  Royal  Astronomer  (C. 
PIAZZI-SMYTH)  was  the  first  to  demonstrate  the  advantages  of 
mountain  sites  for  astronomical  observatories,  by  his  expedition  to 
Teneriffe,  (during  1856).  His  spectroscopic  observations  are 
also  well  known,  as  well  as  his  researches  on  the  Great  Pyramid. 

Glasgow  Observatory  :  Founded  in  1840.  The  chief  instrument  is  a 
meridian  circle,  with  which  the  present  Director  (R.  GRANT)  has 
observed  an  admirable  catalogue  of  6,415  stars. 

Dublin  Observatory:  (at  Dunsink) ;  founded  1785.  The  principal 
instruments  are  an  1 1  f  inch  CAUCHOIX  refractor  and  a  6. 4  inch  PISTOR 
&  MARTINS'  meridian  circle.  Both  these  instruments  have  been 
energetically  employed  by  BRFENNOW  and  by  his  successor,  the 

E resent  Director  (Sir  R.  S.  BALL)  in  determinations  of  stellar  paral- 
ix,  etc.  The  observations  are  regularly  published  in  quarto. 

Armagh  Observatory  :  Founded  in  1791,  enlarged  in  1827.  Very 
important  star  catalogues  have  been  published  from  observations 
made  by  Dr.  T.  R.  ROBINSON  (1823-1882).  Dr.  J.  L.  E.  DREYER  is 
now  Director. 

Mr.  A.  A.  Common's  private  observatory,  Eating,  is  noted  for  the 
work  done  with  the  36-inch  reflector  (1879-1885)  and  especially  for 
admirable  celestial  photographs.  Mr.  COMMON  is  now  building  a 
63-inch  reflector. 

Earl  Crawford's  private  observatory  at  Dun  Echt,  Scotland,  is  one  of 
the  best  equipped  of  modern  observatories,  and  has  made  itself  a 
name  by  solid  work  in  various  fields.  The  chief  instruments  are  a 
15-inch  refractor,  by  GRUBB,  a  fine  meridian  circle,  etc.,  with 
spectroscopes,  etc.  The  observations  are  printed  in  quarto  form. 

Mr.  R.  S.  NewaWs  private  observatory  at  Gateshead  has  possessed 
a  25-inch  refractor  by  COOKE  since  1870.  The  instrument  is  very 
fine  in  every  respect,  but  it  has  remained  idle,  so  far  as  science  is 
concerned,  all  these  years. 

Lord  Rosse's  observatory  at  Birr  Castle.  In  1839  a  3-foot  reflector, 
in  1845  the  famous  6-foot  reflector,  were  made  and  mounted  by  the 
father  of  the  present  Earl.  Much  interesting  work  has  been  done 
here  in  various  fields. 


108  THE   PRINCIPAL   OBSERVATORIES   OP   THE   WORLD. 

Many  other  private  observatories  might  be  mentioned  here  which 
well  deserve  a  place,  but  they  are  omitted  for  want  of  room. 

FRANCE. 

National  Observatory  of  Pans:  Founded  in  1667.  The  CASSINIS, 
BOCTVARD,  ARAGO,  LE  VERRIER  and  DELAUNAY  have  been  directors. 
The  present  director  (Admiral  MOUCHEZ)  aided  by  a  most  efficient 
staff,  has  infused  a  new  life  into  practical  astronomy  in  France  and 
has  again  placed  this  great  establishment  in  ya  foremost  position. 
The  principal  instruments  are  a  29-inch,  a  15-inch,  a  12-inch,  two 
94-inch  refractors,  two  meridian  circles  and  very  many  minor  instru- 
ments. Besides  these,  photographic  refractors  of  various  sizes  (the 
largest  13  inches  in  aperture)  have  been  lately  used  with  splendid 
results  by  the  brothers  PAUL  and  PROSPER  HENRY.  There  are  many 
astronomers,  assistants,  etc.  The  work  is  regularly  published  in 
quarto  volumes  (about  60  of  which  have  been  printed).  The 
University  observatories  of  Lyons,  Bordeaux  and  Toulouse  are 
allied  with  the  National  observatory  and  are  well  equipped. 

Meudon  Observatory:  Founded  in  1875  by  JULES  JANSSEN  the  pres- 
ent Director.  This  observatory  is  devoted  to  spectroscopic  obser- 
vations and  especially  to  solar  photography.  There  are  several 
assistants. 

Marseilles  Observatory:  Founded  1749  ;  rebuilt  1869.  The  princi- 
pal instruments  are  a  94-inch  refractor  and  a  32-inch  reflector.  The 
director  (E.  STEPHAN)  has  several  assistants. 

Nice  Observatory :  Founded  in  1880  by  M.  BISCHOFFSHEIM,  the 
banker,  and  presented  to  the  Bureau  of  Longitude.  It  is  on  Mont- 
Gros,  near  Nice.  It  has  a  30-inch  refractor  by  the  HENRY  broth- 
ers, a  fine  meridian  circle  of  8  inches  aperture  and  many  other 
instruments  of  the  finest  kind.  The  director  is  M.  PERROTIN  and 
there  are  several  assistants. 

GERMANY. 

The  principal  observatories  of  Germany  are  connected  with  the 
great  Universities  or  with  Academies  of  Science.  They  have  in 
general  been  distinguished  not  by  great  instruments  but  by  great 
men. 

Royal  Observatory  of  Berlin:  Founded  in  1705,  rebuilt  in  1835. 
The  principal  instruments  are  a  94-inch  FRAUENHOFER  refractor  (with 
which  the  planet  Neptune  was  first  seen  in  1846)  and  two  PISTOR  & 
MARTINS'  meridian  circles  of  4  and  7  inches  aperture  respectively. 
All  the  instruments  have  been  actively  employed.  The  observa- 
tions are  regularly  printed. 

Observatory  of  Bonn  :  Founded  in  1841.  A  refractor  of  6  inches 
and  meridian  circles  of  4^  and  6|  inches  aperture  are  the  chief  in- 
struments. Here  the  Durchmusterungen  of  the  sky  (catalogues  of 
every  star  from  the  first  to  the  tenth  magnitude)  have  been  made  by 


THE  PRINCIPAL  OBSERVATORIES   OF   THE   WORLD.  109 

ARGELANDER,  KRUEGER  and  SCHOENFELD.  The  positions  of  more 
than  500,000  stars  have  been  determined  at  this  observatory. 
The  results  are  printed  in  8  quarto  volumes.  The  present  director 
is  Professor  SCHOENFELD  who  has  several  assistants. 

Strassburg  Observatory:  completed  in  1881,  contains  an  18-inch  re- 
factor  by  MERZ,  a  6|  -in chREPSOLD  meridian  circle,  alt-azimuth  etc. , 
etc.  The  observatory  is  built  in  the  best  manner  and  is  intended 
to  be  perfect  in  all  respects.  There  are  several  astronomers  attached 
to  it.  The  present  director  is  W.  KOBOLD. 

Royal  Observatory  of  Munich:  Founded  in  1809.  The  principal 
instruments  are  an  11 -inch  refractor  and  a  meridian  circle.  The 
director  (Professor  SEELIGER)  has  several  assistants.  The  obser- 
vations are  regularly  published  in  octavo. 

Royal  Observatory  at  Potsdam:  This  observatory  is  devoted  to 
astrophysical  researches.  The  chief  instruments  are  two  refractors 
of  11^  and  of  8  inches  aperture  made  by  SCHROEDER  and  GRUBB, 
respectively,  besides  photometers,  spectroscopes,  etc.  The  obser- 
vatories of  Potsdam  and  of  Lund,  working  jointly,  have  recorded 
the  spectra  of  each  one  of  the  principal  fixed  stars.  The  results 
are  printed  in  quarto  volumes. 

Observatory  of  Leipzig :  Founded  1787—90,  rebuilt  1861.  Its 
principal  instruments  are  an 8 J-inch  STEINHEIL  refractor  and  a  6.3- 
inch  PISTOR  &  MARTINS'  meridian  circle.  It  has  long  been  noted  for 
the  important  work  done  by  the  various  astronomers  who  have  been 
attached  to  it  during  the  past  50  years.  The  present  director  is 
Professor  BRTJNS. 

The  observatories  of  Bothkamp,  Dresden,  Gotha,  Gottingen, 
Hamburg,  Kiel,  Koenigsberg,  Karlsruhe,  etc.  would  all  deserve 
mention  in  a  more  extended  notice. 

AUSTRO-HTJNGARY. 

Imperial  Observatory  of  Vienna:  Founded  1756,  rebuilt  1826, 
again  rebuilt  in  a  new  site  1879.  The  principal  instruments  are  a 
27-inch  refractor  by  GRTJBB,  a  12-inch  by  ALVAN  CLARK,  meridian 
circles,  etc.  The  director  (Professor  E.  WEISS)  is  aided  by  a  corps 
of  assistants,  one  of  whom,  Dr.  J.  PALISA,  has  discovered  more 
than  60  miner  planets.  The  observations  have  been  regularly 
published  since  1821. 

Private  Observatory  O/DE  KONKOLY  at  O'Gyalla,  Hungary :  Estab- 
lished in  1871  and  specially  devcted  to  spectroscopy,  photography 
etc.  The  principal  instrument  is  a  10-inch  Merz  refractor.  The 
results  are  published  in  quarto  volumes.  The  observatories  of  Pola, 
Kalocza,  Hereny  etc.,  should  be  named  among  the  more  important 
establishments  of  Austro-Hungary. 

SWITZERLAND. 

Observatory  of  Geneva :  Founded  in  1773,  rebuilt  in  1830.  A  10- 
inch  refractor  is  the  principal  instrument.  The  observatories  of 


110  THE  PRINCIPAL  OBSERVATORIES   OF   THE   WORLD. 

Ziirich,  Berne,  and  Neuchatel  are  important.  Especial  attention  is 
devoted  in  all  Swiss  observatories,  to  providing  accurate  time  sig- 
nals to  watch-manufactories. 

SPAIN  AND  PORTUGAL. 

The  observatories  of  Madrid,  Cadiz,  Lisbon  and  Coimbra  are 
among  the  more  important.  They  possess  some  excellent  instru- 
ments; but  comparatively  very  few  observations  come  from  these 
establishments. 

ITALY. 

Observatory  of  Milan:  Founded  in  1763.  In  1875  an  8-inch  MERZ 
refractor  was  mounted  and  in  1885  an  18-inch  by  the  same  artist. 
The  director  (Professor  SCHIAPARELLI)  has  regularly  published  the 
results  of  the  important  investigations  of  himself  and  his  assistants. 

The  Observatory  of  the  Roman  College,  Rome  :  Founded  in  1787  by  the 
order  of  Jesuits,  and  made  celebrated  by  the  labors  of  DA  Vico  and 
SECCHI.  Its  principal  instrument  is  a  FRAUENHOFER  refractor  of  9.6 
inches  aperture.  Professor  TACCHINI,  the  present  director,  devotes 
his  attention  chiefly  to  solar  spectroscopy.  Minor  planets  are  as- 
siduously observed  by  his  coadjutor  Professor  MILLOSOVICH."  It  is 
the  central  meteorological  station  of  Italy. 

The  observatories  of  Naples,  Palermo  and  others,  are  among  the 
most  important  in  Italy. 

Observatory  on  Etna :  In  1880  an  observatory  was  established  on 
Etna  9650  feet  above  the  sea.  During  the  inclement  weather  of 
winter  the  object-glass  (only)  is  removed  to  Catania,  where  a  dupli- 
cate mounting  is  provided  for  it. 

GREECE. 

The  Observatory  of  Athens  (founded  1845)  remained  one  of  the 
most  active  in  Europe  during  the  directorship  of  SCHMIDT  (1845 — 
1884.)  Here  his  great  map  of  the  moon,  six  feet  in  diameter,  was 
constructed  from  the  observations  of  20  years. 

RUSSIA. 

Imperial  Observatory  of  Pulkowa  :  This  observatory,  "the  astro- 
nomical capital  of  the  world  "  was  founded  by  W.  STRUVE  in  1839. 
At  his  death  in  1861,  his  son,  OTTO  STROVE,  succeeded  him.  His 
grandsons  HERMANN  and  LUDWIG  STRUVE  are  among  the  corps  of 
observers.  The  staff  consists  of  the  director,  four  astronomers,  four 
assistants,  two  computers,  a  secretary  and  a  number  of  laborers  and 
workmen.  The  principal  instruments  are  a  6-inch  ERTEL  transit,  a 
6-inch  ERTEL  vertical  circle,  a  6-inch  REPSOLD  meridian-circle,  a 
prime-vertical  transit,  a  7^ -inch  MERZ  heliometer,  a  15-inch  MERZ 
refractor  and  finally  the  great  30-inch  refractor  ( objective  by  AL VAN 
CLARK,  mounting  by  REPSOLD).  The  most  important  and  accurate 
observations  of  modern  astronomy  have  been  made  here  and  are 


THE   PRINCIPAL  OBSERVATORIES   OF   THE   WORLD.  Ill 

published  in  1 1  quarto  volumes.  Besides  being  the  central  astro- 
nomical observatory,  Pulkowa  is  also  the  headquarters  for  the 
geodetic  observations  over  all  Russia. 

Observatory  of  Moscow:  Built  1850.  The  principal  instruments 
are  a  10. 7  inch  refractor  and  a  meridian  circle.  The  late  director 
(Tn.  BREDICHIN)  has  made  the  study  of  comets  a  speciality  and 
has  formulated  a  theory  by  means  of  which  the  shape  of  their  tails 
can  be  predicted  in  advance  in  somewhat  the  same  way  that  their 
orbits  become  known  after  three  observations.  Ten  volumes  of  An- 
nals have  been  printed  in  quarto. 

The  observatories  of  Helsingfors,  Dorpat,  Wilna,  Warsaw,  Kasan, 
Kieff,  and  others  would  deserve  special  mention  in  a  more  extended 
notice.  Many  of  them  are  excellently  equipped  with  instruments 
and  observers.  Daily  photographs  of  the  sun  were  taken  at  Wilna 
from  1869  to  1876. 

SWEDEN,  NORWAY  AND  DENMARK. 

Observatory  of  Stockholm,:  Founded  in  1750.  Its  principal  instru- 
ments are  a  4|-inch  ERTEL  meridian-circle  and  a  7 -inch  REPSOLD 
refractor.  The"  latter  is  employed  by  the  director  (Professor  GYL- 
DEN)  to  determine  the  parallax  of  fixed  stars.  Very  important 
theoretical  investigations  are  also  carried  on  by  Professor  GYLDEN. 
The  observations  are  regularly  printed  in  quarto  form. 

Observatory  of  Copenhagen:  This  observatory  is  the  oldest  in 
Europe,  for  it  was  founded  in  1641,  rebuilt  in  1728, 1741,  1780  and 
again  in  1861.  The  principal  instruments  of  the  new  observatory 
are  an  11-inch  MERZ  refractor  and  a  meridian-circle  by  PISTOR  & 
MARTINS  of  4|  inches.  The  various  astronomers  who  have  observed 
here  have  made  the  name  of  the  observatory  well  known  in  all 
civilized  countries. 

The  observatories  of  Upsala,  Lund  and  Christiania  possess  refrac- 
tors of  9  inches,  9|  inches  and  7  inches  respectively,  besides  meridian 
circles  etc.  At  Lund  especial  attention  has  been  paid  to  mathemat- 
ical astronomy  by  the  director  (Prof.  AXEL  MOLLER)  and  to  double 
stars  and  stellar  spectra  by  Dr.  DUNER.  At  Upsala  Dr.  SCHULTZ 
has  made  important  researches  on  nebulae  etc. 

HOLLAND   AND    BELGIUM. 

Observatory  ofLeyden:  Founded  in  1632  ;  anew  observatory  built 
in  1860.  The  chief  instruments  are  a  7 -inch  refractor  by  MERZ  and 
a  6.3-inch  meridian  circle  by  PISTOR  &  MARTINS.  With  the  latter 
instrument  extremely  accurate  positions  of  the  fundamental  stars 
have  been  established.  The  Director  (V.  D.  S.  BAKHUYSEN)  has 
several  assistants.  The  observations  are  published  in  quarto. 

Royal  Observatory  of  Brussels :  Founded  in  1834.  In  1877  a  15- 
inch  refractor,  by  COOKE,  and  a  6J-inch  meridian  circle,  by  REPSOLD, 
were  mounted.  Twenty-eight  quarto  volumes  have  already  been 
printed. 


112  THE  PRINCIPAL  OBSERVATORIES  OF  THE   WORLD. 

MEXICO  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA,    ETC. 

Observatory  of  Tacubaya  (Mexico)  :  Founded  in  1880  at  Chapul- 
tepec  ;  moved  to  its  present  position  in  1883.  Its  principal 
instrument  is  a  15-inch  refractor  by  GRUBB.  The  Director  (  ANGEL 
ANGIANO)  has  several  assistants.  The  observations  are  regularly 
printed. 

Observatory  of  Cordoba  (Argentine  Republic) :  Founded  in  1871. 
During  the  years  1871-1885  an  enormous  amount  of  work  was 
done  by  the  Director  (Dr.  B.  A.  GOULD,  of  Boston)  and  his 
assistants.  The  principal  instruments  are  a  11 -inch  refractor  by 
FITZ,  which  can  also  be  used  photographically,  and  a  meridian 
circle  by  REPSOLD,  of  five  inches  aperture.  The  present  Director 
(Dr.  THOME)  is  engaged  in  determining  the  position  of  every  star 
from  the  first  to  tiie  tenth  magnitude  in  the  Southern  sky. 

The  Observatory  of  Rio  Janeiro  :  This  institution,  founded  in  1845, 
is  completely  equipped  with  instruments  and  has  a  staff  of  as- 
tronomers. 

The  Observatory  of  Santiago  de  Chili  was  founded  in  1849  by 
Lieut.  GILLISS,  U.  S.  Navy,  and  rebuilt  in  1860  by  Dr.  MOESTA, 
the  then  Director.  It  possesses  a  9^ -inch  refractor.  Little  work 
is  now  done.  Two  quarto  volumes  of  observations  have  been 
printed. 

AFRICA,    INDIA,     AUSTRALIA,    ETC. 

Royal  Observatory,  Cape  oj  Good  Hope :  Founded  in  1820.  The 
successive  Astronomers,  FALLOWS  (1829-1831),  T.  HENDERSON  (1832- 
1833),  T.  MACLEAR  (1833-1870),  E.  J.  STONE  (1870-1879)  and 
DAVID  GILL  (1879-date)  have  done  work  of  the  first  importance  in 
exact  astronomy  and  geodesy,  in  photography,  etc.,  etc.  Very 
exact  determinations  of  stellar  parallax  have  been  made  here  by 
HENDERSON  and  latterly  by  GILL  and  ELK.IN.  A  photographic  map 
of  the  whole  southern  sky  is  now  being  made  at  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope;  other  extensive  operations  are  in  hand.  It  was  near  this  ob- 
servatory that  Sir  JOHN  HERSCHEL  established  his  observatory  in 
the  years  1834-38.  Its  principal  instruments  are  a  meridian  circle 
of  8 -inches  aperture,  like  that  at  Greenwich,  and  several  small 
refractors  of  7 -inches  of  aperture  and  less.  Its  observations  are 
regularly  printed  in  octavo. 

Observatory  of  Madras  :  This  observatory  was  founded  in  1831.  Its 
principal  instruments  are  a  meridian  circle,  and  an  equatorial  by 
SIMMS,  of  8-inch  aperture.  Much  work  has  been  done  here  by  the 
Director  (N.  POGSON)  and  his  assistants,  but  I  am  not  aware  of  any 
publications  since  the  eight  4to  volumes  which  cover  the  observa- 
tions of  the  years  1831-1854. 

Observatory  of  Sydney,  N.  S.  W.:  Founded  in  1855.  The  princi- 
pal instruments  are  a  6-inch  SIMMS  meridian  circle  and  a  11^-inch 


THE   PRINCIPAL  OBSERVATORIES  OF  THE   WORLD.  113 

SCHROEDER  equatorial.  The  observatory  regularly  publishes  meteor- 
ological and  other  observations.  The  Director  is  Mr.  H.  C.  RUS- 
SELL. 

Observatory  of  Melbourne:  Built  in  1863.  It  possesses  a  great 
reflector  of  4  feet  aperture,  by  GRUBB,  which  was  mounted  in  1869, 
but  which  has  rendered  comparatively  little  service  to  science. 
An  8-inch  refractor  by  COOKE  and  a  meridian  circle  have,  however, 
been  very  actively  and  efficiently  used,  the  latter  by  Mr.  WHITE. 
The  results  are  printed  in  quarto  form. 

UNITED   STATES. 

Dudky  Observatory  (Albany),  observatory  of  Union  College  :  found- 
ed in  1851-56.  The  chief  instruments  are  a  13-  inch  refractor  by 
FITZ,  and  a  PISTOR&  MARTINS'  meridian  circle  of  6  inches  aperture. 
Its  directors  have  been  Dr.  B.  A.  GOULD,  Professor  O.  M.  MITCHELL, 
Professor  G.  W.  HOUGH  and  Professor  LEWIS  Boss.  There  is  one 
assistant.  The  meridian  circle  has  been  vigorously  employed  in  ob- 
serving a  zone  of  stars  for  the  Astronomische  Gesellschaft  by  the  present 
director,  Professor  Boss.  A  railway  time  service  is  maintained. 
Two  volumes  of  observations,  etc.,  have  been  printed. 

Allegheny  Observatory,  observatory  of  university  of  Western  Penn- 
sylvania :  Founded  in  1860.  Its  principal  instruments  are  a  13- 
inch  Frrz  refractor  and  physical  apparatus,  such  as  spectroscopes, 
bolometers,  photometers,  etc.  An  extensive  railway  time  service 
is  maintained.  There  are  two  assistants.  Under  the  enlightened 
direction  of  Professor  LANGLEY,  (1860-1887)  this  observatory  be- 
came the  chief  authority  in  the  world  on  questions  relating  to  solar 
physics.  Its  chief  financial  support  has  been  derived  from  the 
liberal  gifts  of  the  Hon.  WM.  THAW,  of  Pittsburgh. 

Amherst  College  Observatory  :  Founded  in  1857.  A  7^ -inch  refrac- 
tor by  ALVAN  CLARK  is  its  chief  instrument.  Assiduous  observa- 
tions of  the  satellites  of  Jupiter  are  kept  up  here  by  the  director, 
Professor  D.  P.  TODD. 

Annapolis  Observatory  (U.  S.  Naval  Academy)  :  The  observatory 
has  a  7f -inch  CLARK  refractor  and  a  4-inch  meridian  circle  by  E/EP- 
SOLD  which  latter  has  become  well  known  through  the  writings  of 
Professor  CHAUVENET,  the  first  director.  The  observatory  is  only 
used  for  purposes  of  instruction. 

Ann  Arbor  Observatory — Observatory  of  University  of  Michigan  : 
founded  in  1854  under  Professor  BRUENNOW.  Its  chief  instruments 
are  a  12^ -inch  refractor  by  FITZ  and  a  6 £  -inch  PISTOR  &  MARTINS' 
meridian  circle.  Twenty-one  asteroids  were  discovered  with  this 
refractor  by  Professor  WATSON,  the  second  director,  and  the  merid- 
ian circle  has  been  assiduously  used  by  Mr.  SCHAEBERLE  (now 
an  astronomer  at  the  Lick  observatory)  in  observations  of  stars. 
Professor  M.  W.  HARRINGTON  is  the  present  director.  He  has  one 
assistant. 

(viii) 


114  THE   PRINCIPAL   OBSERVATORIES   OF   THE  WORLD. 

Harvard  College  Observatory :  This  establishment  has  a  most  hon- 
orable history  under  the  distinguished  astronomers  who  have  had  it 
in  charge,  namely  W.  C.  BOND,  G-.  P.  BOND,  JOSEPH  WINLOCK  and 
E.  C.  PICKERING.  The  principal  instruments  are  a  15-inch  MEHZ 
refractor  (a  companion  to  that  of  Pulkowa,  Russia, )  with  which  G. 
P.  BDND  discovered  a  new  satellite  is  Saturn,  made  extensive  studies 
on  this  planet,  on  the  nebula  of  Orion,  on  the  great  comet  of  1858, 
etc.,  etc.  There  are  two  meridian  circles ;  the  largest  by  SIMMS  has 
an  aperture  of  8^  inches  and  has  done  most  important  work  in  fix- 
ing stellar  positions  in  the  hands  of  Professor  W.  A.  ROGERS.  A 
great  variety  of  other  work  has  been  done  and  published  here. 
The  last  director  (Professor  E.  C.  PICKERING)  wisely  turned  much 
of  the  energy  of  the  establishment  into  researches  in  astronomical 
physics — spectroscopy,  photometry  and  photography.  He  has  de- 
termined the  brightness  of  all  the  lucid  stars  visible  at  Cambridge; 
and  his  researches  on  stellar  spectra  by  photography  (which  are 
largely  carried  on  with  instruments  belonging  to  the  late  HENRY 
DRAPER  and  with  funds  furnished  by  his  wife,  Mrs.  ANNA  PALMER 
DRAPER),  are  among  the  most  important  of  modern  astronomy.  The 
observations  are  regularly  and  promptly  published  in  quarto  vol- 
umes. A  time  service  is  kept  up.  The  regular  income  of  the  ob- 
servatory was  in  the  neighborhood  of  $18,000  before  the  BOYDEN 
FUND  of  more  than  $200,000  became  available.  It  is  now  of  course 
much  greater.  More  than  twenty  astronomers  and  assistants  are 
employed  here.  The  whole  history  of  this  observatory  is  an  admir- 
able comment  on  the  text  that  to  those  who  already  have  and  prop- 
erly use  a  large  instrumental  equipment,  more  should  be  given.  In- 
tending founders  of  observatories  would  do  well  to  study  the  history 
of  this  observatory  in  order  to  see  how  comparatively  small  sums  of 
money  placed  rightly,  will  produce  relatively  great  results. 

Chicago  University,  (Observatory  of  Northwestern  University) : 
This  observatory  was  founded  in  1862  and  purchased  the  18J-inch 
Clark  refractor  with  which  ALVAN  G.  CLARK  discovered  the 
companion  to  Sinus.  This  telescope  long  remained  the  largest  and 
most  perfect  in  the  world  and  many  brilliant  discoveries  were 
within  its  reach.  It  was  not  fully  utilized,  however,  until  Mr.  S. 
W.  BURNHAM  (now  an  astronomer  at  the  Lick  Observatory)  contin- 
ued his  work  on  double  stars  by  its  means.  A  6-inch  meridian 
circle  by  REPSOLD  is  also  part  of  the  equipment.  The  observatory 
is  about  to  be  moved  to  Evanston,  Illinois.  Professor  G.  W. 
HOUGH  is  the  present  Director.  A  regular  time  service  has  been 
maintained  here  by  Professor  HOUGH,  and  physical  observations  of 
Jupiter  and  measures  of  difficult  double  stars  are  kept  up.  There 
are  no  assistants. 

Cincinnati  Observatory,  Observatory  of  University  of  Cincinnati : 
Founded  in  1842  by  Professor  O.  M.  MITCHELL.  The  principal  in- 
strument is  an  11  j-inch  equatorial  by  MERZ,  which  was  assidu- 


THE  PRINCIPAL  OBSERVATORIES  OF  THE   WORLD.  115 

ously  used  by  Professor  0.  STONE  in  double  star  observations  dur- 
ing his  directorship.  The  present  Director  (Professor  J.  G.  PORTER) 
has  shown  what  valuable  work  may  be  done  by  small  instruments 
by  his  catalogue  of  4150  southern  stars  observed  with  a  3-inch 
transit.  A  regular  time  service  is  kept  up  here.  The  observations 
are  published  in  six  volumes. 

Clinton  Observatory,  Observatory  of  Hamilton  College  :  Founded 
in  1855.  Its  principal  instrument  is  a  SPENCER  refractor  of  13| 
inches  aperture.  This  instrument  has  in  the  last  thirty  years  been 
in  the  hands  of  Dr.  C.  H.  F.  PETERS,  who  has  discovered  no  less 
than  forty-two  minor  planets  by  its  means,  and  made  a  series  of 
ecliptic  charts  of  the  highest  value,  besides  a  long  series  of  sun-spot 
observations  and  a  catalogue  of  ecliptic  stars.  This  he  has  done 
for  the  most  part  without  assistance. 

Georgetown  Observatory,  (D.  C.}:  Erected  1844.  A  6-inch  re- 
fractor and  a  small  meridian  circle  are  available.  The  observatory 
is  used  for  instruction  only. 

Glasgow  Observatory  (Missouri] :  Founded  in  1876.  Its  instruments 
are  a  12J-inch  CLARK  refractor  and  a  6-inch  SIMMS  meridian  circle. 
Both  have  been  actively  used  by  Professor  C.  W.  PRITCHETT  and 
by  his  son,  Professor  H.  S.  PRITCHETT. 

Hanover  Observatory  (N.  II.) ,  Observatory  of  Dartmouth  College : 
Founded  in  1853.  The  instruments  are  a  9J-inch  CLARK  equatorial, 
a  4-inch  meridian  circle,  and  spectroscopic  apparatus  with  which 
Professor  C.  A.  YOUNG  has  done  his  work  on  the  sun. 

Madison  Observatory,  (Wisconsin),  Observatory  of  the  University 
of  Wisconsin  :  Founded  by  Governor  WASHBURN  in  1878.  The 
first  director  was  Professor  J.  C.  WATSON,  who  died  in  1880. 
The  principal  instruments  are  a  15|-inch  CLARK  refractor,  with 
which  Mr.  S.  W.  BURNHAM  (now  astronomer  at  the  Lick  Ob- 
servatory) made  many  valuable  discoveries  and  measures  of  double 
stars ;  and  a  4.8-inch  REPSOLD  meridian  circle,  with  which  much 
work  was  done  by  the  second  director  (Professor  E.  S.  HOLDEN, 
now  of  the  Lick  Observatory)  and  the  present  director  (Professor 
G.  C.  COMSTOCK),  then  assistant,  and  others.  The  work  of  1881- 
1884  has  been  printed  in  four  octavo  volumes.  A  fifth  volume  was 
printed  by  Mr.  UPDEGRAFF  and  Miss  LAMB,  assistants,  completing 
the  plan  of  the  first  four  volumes.  An  extensive  time  service  is 
maintained  here.  A  separate  student's  observatory  is  attached  to 
the  Washburn  Observatory,  containing  a  6-inch  CLARK  refractor 
(by  means  of  which  Mr.  BURNHAM  discovered  more  than  500  double 
stars)  and  a  3-inch  transit. 

New  Haven  Observatory,  Observatory  of  Yale  College  :  Founded 
in  1881.  It  contains  a  REPSOLD  heliometer  of  6  inches  aperture, 
one  of  the  most  important  instruments  of  the  world  ;  an  8-inch 
Grubb  refractor  and  minor  instruments.  The  heliometer  is  used  by 
Dr.  W.  L.  ELKIN  for  determining  stellar  parallaxes.  The  observa- 


116  THE  PRINCIPAL  OBSERVATORIES  OF  THE  WORLD. 

tory  extends  facilities  for  testing  thermometers  and  chronometers, 
and  has  done  much  useful  work  in  this  direction  under  Dr.  L. 
WALDO.  There  are  several  assistants.  This  observatory  owns  a  27- 
inch  flint  disc  and  presumably  intends  to  erect  a  large  refractor  at 
some  future  time.  An  extensive  time  service  is  kept  up. 

New  York  Observatory:  The  instruments  formerly  owned  (and 
partly  constructed)  by  Dr.  L.  M.  RUTHERFURD,  have  been  trans- 
ferred to  Columbia  College  Observatory  (Professor  J.  K.  REES, 
director.)  The  chief  instrument  is  a  13-inch  refractor,  whose 
objective  is  corrected  for  the  photographic  rays.  With  this  instru- 
ment Dr.  RUTHERFURD  made  his  beautiful  photographs  of  the  moon 
(the  best  yet  made)  and  many  photographs  of  star  clusters,  etc., 
the  results  of  which  have  not  yet  been  published. 

Norihfield  Observatory,  University  of  Carlton  College,  Minnesota  : 
Erected  1878.     Professor  W.  W.  PAYNE  is  director  and  the  editor  of  +4 
the  Sidereal  Messenger  (8vo,  monthly).     The  principal  instruments  ' 
are  an  8|-inch  CLARK  refractor  and  a  4.8-inch  REPSOLD  meridian 
circle.     An  extensive  time  service  is  maintained. 

Princeton  Observatory,  Observatory  of  Princeton  College :  The 
student's  observatory  (erected  1877)  has  a  9J-inch  refractor  by 
CLARK,  a  4-inch  meridian  circle,  etc.  The  Halstead  Observatory 
has  a  23-inch  CLARK  refractor  with  a  CHRISTIE  half  prism  spectro-  ; 
scope.  The  director  is  Professor  C.  A.  YOTTNG  ;  the  principal  assis- 
tant is  Mr.  McNEiLL. 

Rochester  Observatory,  (N.  Y.) :  Erected  by  H.  H.  WARNER  in 
1880.  The  principal  instrument  is  a  16-inch  CLARK  refractor. 
Dr.  LEWIS  SWIFT,  the  director,  is  the  discoverer  of  many  comets 
and  has  lately  found  many  new  nebulae.  Mr.  WARNER  regularly 
offers  $100  as  a  prize  for  each  newly  discovered  comet. 

University  of  Virginia:  This  observatory  contains  a  26-inch  CLARK 
refractor  with  which  Professor  0.  STONE  is  observing  a  large  list  of 
double  stars  and  nebulae. 

Washington  Observatory,  U.  S.  Naval  Observatory  :  The  first  obser- 
vations date  from  1845.  The  first  staff  of  observers  contained  Pro- 
fessors COFFIN,  HUBBARD  and  WALKER  among  others.  The  Wash- 
ington observations  from  1845  to  1848  are  equal  to  any  printed  at 
that  epoch.  The  methods  followed  were  the  German  methods  of 
GAUSS  and  BESSEL,  and  one  of  the  greatest  services  of  the  Washington 
Observatory  to  American  astronomy  has  been  to  set  a  high  standard 
of  excellence,  both  in  theoretical  and  practical  astronomy.  COFFIN, 
HUBBARD  and  WALKER  are  the  fathers  of  American  astronomy. 
The  director  of  the  observatory  from  1844  to  1861  (M.  F.  MAURY, 
U.  S.  N. )  turned  its  activity  more  and  more  towards  hydrography, 
and  as  a  result  produced  his  excellent  Wind  and  Current  Charts. 
Astronomy  languished,  however,  till  his  successor,  Lieut.  J.  M. 
GILLISS,  was  appointed  in  1861.  The  older  astronomers  had  in  the 
mean  time  left  the  observatory  and  they  were  succeeded  by  a  new 


THE  PRINCIPAL  OBSERVATORIES  OF  THE  WORLD.  117 

school,  of  which  Professors  NEWCOMB  and  HALL  were  the  chiefs, 
who  have  maintained  the  old  standard  amid  many  difficulties,  and 
have  even  added  to  it.  The  instruments  at  present  available  are 
a  mural  circle  of  4  inches  aperture,  a  transit  of  5. 3  inches  aperture, 
a  PISTOR  &  MARTINS'  meridian  circle  of  8^  inches  aperture,  a  MERZ 
refractor  of  9.6  inches  aperture,  a  CLARK  refractor  of  26  inches 
aperture,  besides  photoheliographs  and  many  minor  instruments. 
The  staff  of  the  observatory  consists  of  from  five  to  eight  officers  of 
the  navy,  four  professors  of  mathematics,  three  assistant  astrono- 
mers, two  or  three  computors,  besides  workmen  and  meteorological 
observers.  Fifteen  to  twenty  persons  are  thus  employed  in  scientific 
work.  An  extensive  time  service  is  maintained  and  time  balls  are 
dropped  at  various  places.  The  observatory  at  Mare  Island  Navy 
Yard  is  a  branch  of  the  Naval  Observatory.  The  observations  are 
annually  printed  in  quarto.  The  large  refractor  has  been  actively 
employed  from  1873,  when  it  was  mounted,  till  now.  Professors 
NEWCOMB,  HALL  and  HOLDEN'S  observations  of  the  satellites  of 
Neptune,  Uranus  and  Saturn  have  fixed  the  masses  of  the  three  outer 
planets.  Professor  HALL'S  discovery  of  the  satellites  of  Mars  has 
given  him  a  new  determination  of  the  mass  of  Mars  also.  Professor 
HALL  has  also  determined  the  parallax  of  several  stars  with  high 
accuracy,  and  has  measured  many  difficult  double  stars.  Other 
miscellaneous  work  of  value  has  been  done  with  this  instrument. 
The  history  of  the  26 -inch  refractor  during  the  past  15  years  is  a 
complete  answer  to  the  question  whether  large  telescopes  have  been 
specially  useful  to  astronomy.  It  is  proposed  to  move  the  observa- 
tory from  its  present  site  to  one  more  removed  from  the  smoke  and 
fogs  of  the  city. 

Williams  College  Observatory :  This  is  the  oldest  existing  observa- 
tory in  America.  It  was  founded  in  1836.  Under  the  present 
director  (Professor  T.  H.  SAFFORD)  the  4.8-inch  REPSOLD  meridian 
circle  is  actively  employed  in  making  a  catalogue  of  polar  stars. 

OBSERVATORIES   IN    CALIFORNIA. 

In  a  recent  number  of  the  San  Francisco  Chronicle  Mr.  CHARLES 
B.  HILL,  assistant  astronomer  at  the  Lick  Observatory,  printed  a 
short  account  of  various  public  and  private  observatories  in  Cali- 
fornia. I  have  somewhat  abridged  this  and  have  made  a  few  addi- 
tions, and  reprint  it  here  with  Mr.  HILL'S  permission. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  OUR  LOCAL  OBSERVATORIES. 

By  C.  B.  HILL. 

"With  so  formidable  a  rival  as  the  most  extensive  astronomical 
observatory  in  the  whole  world  to  contend  against,  there  exist, 
nevertheless,  in  San  Francisco  and  adjacent  towns  of  this  State, 
many  private  and  public  observatories  which  have  their  own  field 
of  usefulness  and  demand  their  proper  share  of  attention.  For  it 
must  not  be  imagined  that  the  larger  telescopes  and  observatories 


118  THE  PRINCIPAL  OBSERVATORIES   OF   THE   WORLD. 

make  all  the  discoveries,  or  even  do  any  more  than  their  propor- 
tionate share  of  research.  The  Lick  Observatory  itself  has  all  its 
reputation  yet  to  make  to  justify  the  expectations  formed,  and  that 
it  will  succeed  in  this,  is  not  doubted.  At  the  same  time  the 
astronomical  work,  upon  which,  as  Professor  HOLDEN  himself  says, 
"the  good  name  of  the  observatory  entirely  depends,"  is  yet  barely 
commenced;  while  several  of  the  less  widely  known  observatories 
of  this  coast  to  be  described  in  this  article  have  been  for  some  time 
doing  good  work,  either  in  the  way  of  study  or  public  instruction. 

It  would  be  but  a  fair  recognition  to  give  the  first  position  in  the 
list  to  what  was  doubtless  the  pioneer  institution  of  California,  al- 
though itself  of  quite  recent  construction. 

THE   DAVIDSON   OBSERVATORY. 

The  instrumental  outfit  here  consists  of  a  6. 4-inch  CLARK  object- 
glass,  equatorially  mounted,  which  is  the  private  property  of  Professor  ^ 
GEORGE  DAVIDSON  of  the  United  States  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey. 
The  telescope  is  placed  in  a  convenient  portable  observatory,  situated 
within  the  inclosure  at  the  junction  of  Clay  and  Octavia  streets, 
San  Francisco,  and  devoted,  by  act  of  the  Supervisors,  to  the  use  of 
the  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey  as  the  standard  telegraphic  longi- 
tude station  of  the  Pacific  coast.  The  neat  picket-fence  inclosure 
bears  on  the  door  the  legend  "United  States  Coast  and  Geodetic 
Survey,  Lafayette  Park  Astronomical  and  Telegraph  Longitude 
Station,  San  Francisco,  1880;"  and  above  this  a  separate  sign 
indicating  the  "Davidson  Observatory."  The  dome-shaped  building 
contains  Professor  DAVIDSON'S  equatorial,  and  the  other  portable 
observatories  protect  the  time,  latitude,  gravity  and  magnetic  in- 
struments belonging  to  the  United  States  Coast  and  Geodetic 
Survey. 

A  great  deal  of  fruitful  investigation  has  been  carried  on  by 
means  of  this  small  equatorial.  The  telescope  with  its  present 
FAUTH  mounting  was  exhibited  by  the  maker  at  the  Centennial 
where  it  obtained  a  gold  medal,  and  whence  it  was  brought 
to  this  city  by  Professor  DAVIDSON.  He  has  had  the  teles- 
cope and  its  mounting,  with  the  portable  observatory,  at  the  sum- 
mit of  Santa  Lucia  mountain  (5,960  feet)  in  Monterey  county, 
where  it  was  taken  to  observe  the  total  solar  eclipse  of  January  11, 
1880.  The  solar  eclipses  of  1883  and  1886  were  observed  at  the  pres- 
ent location.  In  1882  while  DAVIDSON  was  in  New  Mexico  in  charge 
of  the  United  States  Transit  of  Venus  party,  he  gave  assistant 
GILBERT  of  the  Coast  Survey  the  use  of  his  private  observatory,  and 
the  second  of  the  only  two  "transits"  visible  during  this  century 
and  the  next  was  successfully  observed  with  the  DAVIDSON 
equatorial,  and  with  other  smaller  telescopes  at  the  same  place. 
Some  close  investigation  of  the  planet  Saturn  during  the  opposi- 
tion of  1884 — 85,  when  the  rings  were  at  the  widest  opening, 


THE   PRINCIPAL  OBSERVATORIES   OF   THE   WORLD.  119 

has  been  published  in  the  proceedings  of  the  California  Academy 
of  Sciences  by  Professor  DAVIDSON.  A  detailed  drawing  of  Saturn, 
fifteen  inches  in  diameter,  has  been  for  some  time  in  the  hands  of 
BRITTON  &  REY  for  reproduction  by  the  photogravure  process.  Be- 
sides this  he  has  made  many  drawings  of  Jupiter  and  Mars.  In 
addition  to  this  work  a  large  number  of  observations  of  star  occulta- 
tions  and  comet  positions  have  been  made  and  published  in  the 
proceedings  of  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society,  London,  the  Sidereal 
Messenger,  Minnesota,  and  in  the  bulletins  of  the  California  Academy 
of  Sciences.  Classes  from  the  High  Schools  have  also  been  permit- 
ted to  use  the  observatory. 

THE   CHABOT   OBSERVATORY. 

In  the  center  of  one  of  the  public  squares  of  the  city  of  Oakland 
stands  a  neat  frame  structure  which  will  for  many  years  to  come 
serve  as  a  most  fitting  monument  to  the  intelligence  and  public  zeal 
of  one  of  her  citizens.  The  CHABOT  Observatory  was  do- 
nated to  the  city  of  Oakland,  to  be  held  in  trust  by  the  Board  of 
Education,  by  the  late  ANTHONY  CHABOT,  in  the  year  1883.  It  is 
situated  in  the  middle  of  Lafayette  square,  which  is  bounded  by 
Tenth,  Eleventh,  Jefferson  and  Grove  streets. 

Its  exact  geographical  position  is  in  latitute  37  deg.  48  min.  5  sec. 
north ;  longitude  122  deg.  16.  min.  34.4  sec.  west  from  Greenwich, 
or,  in  time,  8  hr.  9  min.  6.3  sec.  west  from  Greenwich ;  3  hr.  0  min. 
54.2  sec.  west  from  Washington. 

The  active  existence  of  the  observatory  may  be  said  to  have  com- 
menced in  May,  1886,  for  although  prior  to  that  the  then  Super- 
intendent of  Schools,  J.  C.  GILSON  of  Oakland,  spent  much  of  his 
private  and  official  time  in  the  establishment  of  the  observatory, etc., 
still  it  was  not  until  the  present  director,  FRED.  M.  CAMPBELL,  took 
charge  of  the  School  Department  that  assistant  astrocomers  were 
appointed  and  tl  e  observatory  opened  to  the  public  on  four  even- 
ings of  each  week.  Of  the  other  two  nights,  each  Monday  night  is 
reserved  to  the  High  School  classes  and  Friday  is  occupied  with 
observations  by  the  two  assistants  to  correct  the  clocks  which  fur- 
nish the  official  time  to  the  city  of  Oakland. 

In  a  pamphlet  published  by  the  Oakland  School  Department  Mr. 
CAMPBELL  has  said  : 

"It  may  not  have  occurred  before  to  those  who  read  this  article 
that  in  no  other  city  in  the  world  is  there  an  astronomical  observ- 
atory devoted  to  the  public  instruction,  and  more  particularly  to 
the  public  school  education ;  but  this  is  undoubtedly  the  case,  and 
the  fact  would  be  well  appreciated  by  non-professional  students  in 
many  other  cities  in  this  and  transatlantic  countries,  where  the 
many  and  magnificently  equipped  observatories  are  so  closely  and 
entirely  devoted  to  the  grand  problems  of  astronomical  research 
that  the  admission  of  some  private  student  of  the  science  with  no 


THE   CHABOT   OBSERVATORY-OAKLAND,  CAL. 


(120) 


THE   PRINCIPAL  OBSERVATORIES   OF  THE  WORLD.  121 

facilities  of  his  own  is  only  acquired  as  a  rare  privilege  upon  stated 
occasions.  Of  course,  all  the  great  colleges  and  universities  possess 
attached  observatories,  hut  these  are  entirely  devoted  to  their 
special  uses,  whereas  the  open  sesame  of  the  CHABOT  Observatory  is 
a  card  obtained  at  the  office  of  the  Superintendent  of  Schools,  to 
receive  which  are  only  needed  a  formal  application  and  a  proper 
appreciation  or  the  privilege." 

The  outfit  of  the  CHABOT  Observatory  consists  of  an  eight-inch 
equatorial  telescope,  with  circles,  driving- clock,  spectroscope,  mi- 
crometer, and  all  necessary  accessories;  a  4J-inch  transit,  a 
sidereal  clock,  chronometer,  mean- time  clock,  chronograph,  and 
valuable  meteorological  instruments,  all  of  the  most  modern  and 
approved  construction.  There  is  a  small  library  and  a  very  desir- 
able collection  of  maps,  photographs  and  engravings  to  illustrate 
different  features  to  the  visitors. 

Mr.  CAMPBELL  has  thoroughly  succeeded  in  carrying  out  the 
broad  ideas  of  the  projector.  The  institution  is  decidedly  popular, 
and  the  available  evenings  are  invariably  engaged  for  over  two 
months  in  advance.  Every  day  at  12h.  of  120th  meridian  (Pacific 
standard  time)  the  City  Hall  bell  is  struck  three  times  by  automatic 
signal  from  the  CHABOT  Observatory;  beyond  this  duty  there  is  very 
little  time  for  astronomical  work.  A  few  observations  have  been 
printed  in  the  Sidereal  Messenger. 

The  assistant  astronomers  are  CHARLES  BURCKHALTER  of  Oak- 
land and  CHARLES  B.  HILL  (now  assistant  astronomer  at  the  LICK 
Observatory).  The  citizens  of  San  Francisco  and  Oakland  and 
Eastern  visitors  receive  cards  of  admission  in  order  of  application 
and  without  favor,  and  every  clear  night  a  party  of  from  eight  to 
twelve  persons  is  shown  all  the  principal  and  characteristic 
objects  in  view  at  the  time  and  listens  to  the  explanations  of 
the  astronomers  in  charge. 

Mr.  CHABOT'S  will  left  a  bequest  of  $10,000  to  the  observatory. 
It  has  not  been  decided  how  this  shall  be  spent.  Possibly  a  reflect- 
ing telescope  of  15  inches  aperture  will  be  added  to  the  equipment. 

PRIVATE  OBSERVATORY  OF  MR.    BURCKHALTER. 

Before  becoming  attached  to  the  CHABOT  observatory  Mr.  BURCK- 
HALTER had  erected  at  his  own  home,  on  Chester  street,  West  Oak- 
land, au  observatory  which  is  a  model  of  its  kind.  His  equipment 
consists  of  a  1 0|-inch  reflecting  telescope  by  BRASHEAR  of  Pittsburg, 
Pa.  This  fine  instrument,  with  its  outfit  of  eye-pieces,  prisms  and 
spectroscope,  is  equatorially  mounted  on  a  solid  brick  pier  in  a  com- 
modious and  very  convenient  building,  with  revolving  dome,  etc., 
and  is  supplemented  by  a  small  transit  instrument,  with  sidereal 
clock,  etc.,  in  an  adjoining  building.  The  transit  has  one  and  five- 
eighths  inches  clear  aperture  and  is  also  mounted  on  a  brick  pier. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  facts  in  connection  with  this  observ- 


122  THE   PRINCIPAL  OBSERVATORIES   OF  THE   WORLD. 

atory,  and  the  proudest  feature  about  it  to  the  owner,  is  that  all  the 
mechanical  work,  the  masonry  and  carpentering,  and  even  the  del- 
icate clockwork  for  the  equatorial  movement,  has  been  done  by  Mr. 
BURCKHALTER  himself,  in  the  limited  time  he  has  been  able  to 
devote  to  this  purpose  during  an  active  business  life. 

After  obtaining  the  speculum  the  necessary  flat,  and  the  optical 
arrangements  from  Mr.  BRASHEAR,  Mr.  BURCKHALTER  had  the  ne- 
cessary castings  made  from  his  own  drawings,  and  completed  every 
detail  for  the  equatorial  with  his  own  hands.  The  mirror  is  a  fine 
one.  Mr.  BURCKHALTER'S  reflector  is  a  first-class  specimen  of  the 
maker's  skill  and  in  power  is  equal  to,  if  not  slightly  greater  than, 
the  8 J -inch  refractor  of  the  CHABOT  observatory. 

THE   BLINN   OBSERVATORY. 

The  reference  to  the  astronomical  establishments  of  Oakland 
would  be  far  from  complete  without  mention  of  the  private  obser- 
vatory of  F.  G.  BLINN,  at  Highland  Park,  East  Oakland.  His  obser- 
vatory consists  of  two  adjoining  rooms,  like  Mr.  BURCKHALTER'S. 
The  larger  room  contains  a  5-inch  CLARK  achromatic,  equatorially 
mounted,  with  circles,  slow-motion  and  an  effective  battery  of  eye- 
pieces. The  annexed  apartment  is  for  the  protection  of  his  If -inch 
LATIMER-CLARK  transit,  with  a  mean-time  clock  and  a  sideral  clock,  . 
thus  giving  him  very  complete  and  reliable  means  for  determining 
and  keeping  his  local  time  for  special  observations.  From  his  loca- 
tion there  may  be  obtained  on  an  extraordinarily  clear  day  a  first- 
class  view  of  the  three  peaks  of  Mount  Hamilton  and  the  Lick 
observatory.  Mr.  BLINN  is  also  an  effective  mechanic,  and  designed 
and  constructed  a  great  portion  of  his  observatory.  He  is  quite 
interested  in  telescopic  comets,  and  rarely  fails  to  examine  the 
latest  cometary  discoveries  of  the  * 'professional"  astronmers. 

THE  STUDENTS'  OBSERVATORY. 

This  is  connected  with  the  University  of  California  and  is  under 
the  direction  of  Professor  FRANK  SOULE  of  the  university.  The 
Lick  observatory  on  Mount  Hamilton  is  under  the  control  of  the 
Board  of  Regents  of  the  University  of  California,  and  is  styled  the 
"Lick  Astronomical  Department"  of  that  college  ;  but,  as  intended 
by  the  donor,  its  aim  is  principally  that  of  a  great  laboratory 
of  astronomical  research  and  study,  where  graduates  of  the 
scientific  department  may  be  received  for  a  higher  course  after 
completing  the  elementary  astronomical  work.  This  duty  of 
purely  scientific  investigation  is  the  function  of  every  great 
observatory  attached  to  the  larger  colleges,  as  for  example 
the  Harvard  College  observatory  and  those  of  Princeton,  Michigan 
and  the  University  of  Virginia,  in  this  country,  the  Cambridge 
University  and  numerous  other  colleges  in  Europe.  About  four 
years  ago,  an  appropriation  of  $10,000  was  obtained  from  the 


THE   PRINCIPAL  OBSERVATORIES   OF  THE   WORLD.  123 

Legislature,  out  of  which  a  "Students'  Astronomical  Observatory" 
has  been  constructed  and  equipped  under  Professor  SOULE'S  care. 
The  following  instruments  have  been  purchased :  From  FAUTH  & 
Co.,  of  Washington,  a  6-inch  equatorial  refractor,  with  a  BYRNE 
objective,  having  a  cast-iron  pier,  solar  eye-piece,  micrometer  eye- 
pieces, driving  clock  and  mountings  complete,  a  spectroscope,  with 
ROWLAND'S  gratings  ;  a  DAVIDSON  combination  transit-and-zenith 
telescope  of  three  inches  aperture,  complete;  an  electro-chronograph  ; 
a  first-class  sidereal  chronometer,  with  electric  break-circuit  attach- 
ment, from  NEGUS  BROTHERS,  of  New  York;  and  a  first-class  astro- 
nomical clock,  from  the  HOWARD  Watch  and  Clock  Company  of 
Boston.  To  the  chronograph  and  clock  are  attached  the  electric 
connections  necessary  to  determine  longitude  by  the  telegraphic 
method. 

The  building  is  picturesquely  situated  on  a  rise  a  short  distance 
northwest  of  the  main  buildings  of  the  university,  near  rolling 
ground  and  surrounded  by  foliage.  There  are  five  rooms,  including 
the  equatorial  room,  transit  room,  library  and  office,  sleeping-room, 
and  an  apartment  for  the  earthquake  registers  (of  which  there  are 
three),  known  as  the  seismograph  house. 

This  observatory  affords  opportunity  for  practical  application  of 
the  principles  of  geodesy  as  taught  in  the  class-room,  and  enables 
students  in  engineering  to  acquire  facility  in  the  astronomical  de- 
termination of  time,  latitude,  longitude,  etc.,  as  required  in  ex- 
tended surveys,  navigation  and  practical  astronomy. 

The  equatorial  and  the  spectroscope  furnish  means  for  prosecut- 
ing studies  in  solar  physics  and  similar  fields  of  investigation.  One 
room  in  the  observatory  is  provided  with  a  set  of  meteorological 
instruments,  comprising  maximum  and  minimum  thermometers, 
two  of  GREEN'S  barometers,  a  DRAPER  thermograph,  hygrometer, 
anemometer,  etc.,  and  observations  are  regularly  taken,  recorded 
and  forwarded  to  the  United  States  Signal  Service  Office  in  San 
Francisco. 

OBSERVATORY  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  THE  PACIFIC. 

The  above-named  college,  situated  in  San  Jose,  has  lately, 
through  the  liberality  of  Captain  CHARLES  GOODALL,  of  San  Fran- 
cisco and  DAVID  JACKS,  Esq.,  of  Monterey,  been  well  equipped  with 
a  small  telescope  and  working  observatory.  The  outfit,  for  which 
these  two  gentlemen  each  subscribed  equally,  comprises  a  6-inch 
CLARK  equatorial,  a  3-inch  DAVIDSON  meridian  instrument,  manu- 
factured by  FAUTH  &  Co. ,  and  a  sidereal  chronometer  ;  all  properly 
mounted  and  protected  by  a  neat  and  practical  observatory  build- 
ing, with  dome  for  the  large  telescope  in  the  center,  and  the 
reception-room  and  transit-room  on  either  side.  Rev.  Dr.  A.  C. 
HIRST  is  president  of  this  college  and  Professor  T.  C.  GEORGE  has 
c  large  of  the  observatory  and  the  science  department. 


124  THE   PRINCIPAL  OBSERVATORIES   OF  THE   WORLD. 


MILLS  COLLEGE  OBSERVATORY. 

Still  another  educational  institution  of  California  is  provided 
with  facilities  for  the  study  of  astronomy.  The  observatory 
building  is  finished  but  it  is  not  yet  completely  equipped.  A 
good  5-inch  telescope  has  been  mounted  in  the  dome,  and  before 
long  it  is  expected  to  have  a  transit  and  other  accessories  of  a 
working  observatory. 

From  the  foregoing  it  is  seen  that,  including  the  Lick  Observa- 
tory, there  are  eight  astronomical  observatories  in  this  State,  the 
seven  smaller  ones  being  all  located  in  the  cities  and  towns  on 
either  side  of  San  Francisco  bay.  These,  with  location,  aperture 
of  principal  telescopes  and  the  geographical  positions,  are  enum- 
erated in  the  following  table  : 

ASTRONOMICAL   OBSERVATORIES   OF  THE    PACIFIC   COAST. 

Lick  Observatory  of  the  University  of  California,  Mount  Hamil- 
ton— Three  telescopes,  36-inch,  12-inch  and  6-inch  ;  all  refracting. 
Position,  37  deg.  20.  min.  24  sec.  north  latitude ;  121  deg.  38  min. 
35  sec.  west  longitude. 

Chabot  Observatory,  Oakland — Telescope,  8^-inch ;  refracting. 
Position,  37  deg.  48  min.  5  sec.  north  latitude ;  122  deg.  16  min.  34 
sec.  west  longitude. 

Davidson  Observatory,  San  Francisco — Telescope,  6|-inch  ;  re- 
fracting. Position,  37  cleg.  47  min.  24  sec.  north  latitude  ;  122  deg. 
25  min.  40  sec.  west  longitude. 

Burckhalter  Observatory,  Oakland — Telescope,  10|»inch  ;  refract- 
ing. Position,  37  deg.  48  min.  22  sec.  north  latitude  ;  122  deg.  17 
min.  37  sec.  west  longitude. 

Blinn  Observatory,  Oakland — Telescope,  5-inch  ;  refracting.  Po- 
sition, 37  deg.  47  min.  37  sec.  north  latitude  ;  122  deg.  14  min.  7 
sec.  west  longitude. 

Students'  Observatory  of  the  University  of  California,  Berkeley — • 
Telescope,  6-inch ;  refracting.  Position,  37  deg.  52  min.  21  sec. 
north  latitude ;  122  deg.  15  min.  37  sec.  west  longitude. 

University  of  the  Pacific,  San  Jose — Telescope,  6-inch  ;  refracting. 
Position,  undetermined, 

Mills  College,  Brooklyn — Telescope,  5-inch ;  refracting.  Position, 
37  cleg.  46  min.  44  sec.  north  latitude ;  122  deg.  10  min.  50  sec.  west 
longitude. 

Elevation  above  the  sea — Lick,  4,209  feet;  Davidson,  373  feet; 
University,  320  feet,  and  Blinn's  159  feet. 

To  these  should  be  added  the  observatory  at  Mare  Island  Navy 
Yard,  where  the  time  is  daily  determined  and  from  which  the  time 
ball  on  Telegraph  Hill  is  dropped  by  an  automatic  signal. 

Besides  the  more  pretentious  establishments  there  are  several  fair 
or  average  astronomical  glasses  in  the  possession  of  gentlemen 


THE    PRINCIPAL   OBSERVATORIES   OF   THE   WORLD.  125 

interested  in  the  science,  some  of  excellent  power  and  definition. 
Captain  CHARLES  GOODALL,  on  McAllister  street,  in  San  Francisco, 
has  an  excellent  CLARK  achromatic,  of  5  inches  aperture,  Dr. 
J.  H.  WYTHE,  of  Oakland,  has  an  8^-inch  BRASHEAR  reflector 
and  Dr.  JAMES  MURPHY,  of  San  Francisco,  a  fine  4-inch  achromatic  ; 
St.  Matthew's  Hall  College,  San  Mateo  county,  Cal.,  has  anS^-inch 
BRASHEAR  mirror  permanently  mounted,  with  observatory  building, 
etc.,  but  without  transit  instrument;  Santa  Clara  College  is  pro- 
vided with  a  suitable  telescope,  as  is  also  the  Boys'  High  School,  of 
San  Francisco.  The  last-mentioned  instrument,  of  3^  inches  aper- 
ture, was  used  by  the  present  writer,  through  the  kind  permission 
of  the  proper  authorities,  to  observe  the  transit  of  Venus  in  1882. 
It  is  reported  that  Principal  REID 'sBelmont  school  will,  before  long, 
be  provided  with  a  telescope  and  accompanying  observatory.  The 
Raymond  Hotel,  Pasadena,  has  a  4  inch  CLARK  telescope. 

Any  interesting  occurrence  taking  place  in  the  heavens  is  watched, 
say  at  Greenwich,  until  daybreak  puts  an  end  to  the  observation. 
Farther  west  day  has  not  yet  commenced,  and  study  of  the  occur- 
rence may  be  continued  until,  say  at  Washington,  five  hours' 
additional  time  has  been  gained ;  and  so  on,  still  farther 
west,  three  hours  more  to  San  Francisco,  and  then  the  Pacific  ocean 
intervenes,  and  nothing  can  be  done  until  the  great  observatories 
of  Adelaide  and  Melbourne  can  commence  observations,  six  and  one 
half  hours  of  longitude  having  been  lost  in  the  mean  time.  It  is 
plain,  therefore,  that  for  several  hours  on  each  night  this  object, 
whatever  it  may  be,  will  be  in  view  of  the  Calif oinia  observatories 
when  no  other  telescopes  in  the  world  will  be  available  for  the 
examination  required. " 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 


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Street, 

FOR  SALE  BY 

H.  A.  MATHEWS, 
331  BJ:ontgom.ery  JStreet* 

SAN  FRANCISCO,  CAL. 

AND  BY 

D.  ALLISON 

SAN  JOSE, 


W. 


^^This  Book  is  illustrated  mainly  from  H.  E,  Mathews'  Views 
1-1-90 


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Hand-Book  of  the  Lick  Observatory  is  issued  from 
the  Press  of 


3D  t^p  art  in  cut 


STREET 


Where  a  specialty  is  made  of  HIGH  ART  PRINTING  from 
New  Type  and  by  Skilled  Workmen. 

Customers  waited  on  either  at  the  Printing  Office  as  above 
or  at  the  Store 

721  mfl^KET  STREET 


INDEX 


Page 

Achromatic  Telescopes 70 

Act  of  Congress  granting  Site 24 

Aquarius 19 

Astronomers  of  the  Lick  Observatory 4 

Astronomers'  Work 59,  98 

Astronomical  Instruments  (description  of) 41 

Astronomical  Photography 63,81  et  seq. 

Astro-physics....^ 81 

AUWERS  (A) 46- 

BARNARD  (E.  E.) 4 

Barometer  (view  of) 57 

BOND  (G.  P.) 85,  86,  114 

BOND  (W.  C.) 86,  114 

Boss(L.) 113 

BRASHEAR  (J.  A.) 48 

BRUENNOW  (F.) 113 

Buildings  (plan  of) 32 

"        (description  of) 33 

BULL  (Professor  S.) 33 

BURNHAM  (S.  W.)  4,  23,  26,  62,  114,  115 

California  Time-Service 101 

Canon  Negro 19 

Catalogues  of  Stars 61 

CHAUVENET  (W.) 113 

Chronographs 48 

(view  of) 51 

CLARK(ALVAN) ..41,  44,  72,  78, 114 

Clocks 46 

Clocks  and  Time-Keeping 97 

Clock  of  Lick  Observatory  (view  of) 96,  see  also  100 

COFFIN  (J.  H.  C.) 116 

Comet-seeker..... 44 

COMMON'S  five-foot  reflector 70,  89 

COMMON'S  photographs  of  nebulae,  etc 87,  89 

COMSTOCK  (G.  C.)..... 36, 115 

Congress  grants  the  site 24 

Congress  of  Astronomers 91 

(127) 


128  INDEX 

Page 

DAVIDSON  (Professor  GEORGE) 13,  24, 118 

DE  LA  RUE  (W.)..., 85,  86 

DENT  (E.) 46,  100 

DICKIE  (Mr.) 33 

Dome  (75-foot) 33 

"      (25-foot) 34 

Double  Stars 27 

DRAPER  (D.)  Barometer 57 

"    Rain-Gauge 58 

"        (H.) 24,  42,  85,  114 

"       (J.  W.) 85 

Fund  of  Harvard  College  Observatory 88 

DRAPER'S  photographs  of  nebulae  87 

Dress  (for  a  visit  to  Mt.  Hamilton) 6 

DREYER  (J.  L.  E.) 105 

Drive  from  San  Jose  to  Mt.  Hamilton 17 

Driving  Clocks 44 

Dwelling-Houses 37 

Earthquake  Instruments 54 

(views  of) 53,  55 

Elevations  above  San  Jose 17,  18,19 

Elevating  Floor 34 

ELKIN  (W.  L.) 115 

Endowment  Fund  Needed 64 

Equatorial  (6-inch) 44 

(view  of) 45 

(12-inch)  view  of,  etc 42,  43 

(36-inch) see  Great  Telescope 

ESPIN'S  star-maps 88 

Exposure  of  astronomical  photographs 91 

FAUTH  &  Co 46,  48 

FEIL  (On.) 41 

FLOYD  (R.  S.) 13,  14,  25,  31,  36,  44,  56 

Foreign  A  stronomers  to  visit  the  Lick  Observatory 95 

FRASER  (T.  E.) 13,  25,  31,  36 

FRODSIIAM  (C.) 46 

GALILEO'S  discoveries 67 

GEORGE  (T.  C.) 123 

GILL'S  Southern  star-maps 88,  89 

GiLLiss(J.  M.) 116 

GOULD  (B.  A.) 87,  113 

GOULD'S  photographs 87 

Great  Telescope  (view  of) Frontispiece 

41 

GRUBB  (Sir  H.) 24,  34,  37,  48 


INDEX  129 

Page 

HALL  (A.) 117 

Hall's  Valley 17 

HARKNESS  (W.) 48,  85 

HARKORT(C.) 4 

HARRINGTON  (M.  W.) 113 

Harvard  College  Observatory 42,  83,  86 

Harvard  College  Observatory  photographs 88 

Heliostat  (view  of) 38 

HENRY  (PAUL  and  PROSPER)  photographs  at  Paris 90 

HILL  (C.  B.) 4,  117 

HoHWU(A.) 46 

HOLDEN  (E.  S.) 4,  25,  31,  48,  115,  117 

Hotels  in  San  Jose 5 

HOUGH  (G.  W.) 113,114 

HOWARD  (E.) 48,  96 

HUBBARD  (J.  S.) : 116 

Hunting  on  the  Reservation 6 

International  Photographic  Congress 91 

JANSSEN(J.) 85 

JARBOE  (J.  R.) 33 

KEELER  (J.  E.) 4,  26,  48 

KRUEGER(A.)  46 

LAMB  (A.) 115 

LANGLEY  (S.  P.) 48,  113 

Large  Dome 33 

Large  Telescopes 72,  73 

Library 48,  65 

Library-Fund  (needed) 65 

LICK  (JAMES)  portrait  of 10 

life  of 11 

LICK  (JAMES) 78 

Burial  at  Mt.  Hamilton 13 

Character 12 

Deed  of  Trust 11 

Gifts  to  California 11 

Lick  Observatory  (costof) 64 

(history  of) 24 

(Long,  and  Lat.) 26 

-(map  of  reservation) 23 

(open  to  distinguished  men  of  science) 95 

(publications) 64 

(36-inch  prism  needed) 88 

(view  of  buildings) 20,  21 

(view  of) 35,  40,  80 

Lick  Trustees 14,  25,  56 


130  INDEX 

Livery  Stables  in  San  Jos£ 5 

LOHSE'S  photographs 90 

Lord  BOSSE'S  Telescope 69 

MASTICK  (E.  B.) 14 

MCDONALD  (J.) 4 

McGuiKE(C.) 4 

Me  NEILL  (M.) 116 

MAURY  (M.  F.) 116 

Melbourne  reflector 85 

Meridian-Circle  House 36 

Meridian-Circle 46 

"    (view  of) 47 

"    observations 60 

Meteorological  Instruments 54 

MILLS  (D.  O.) 24,  25 

MITCHEL  (O.  M.) 113,  114 

Moon  (how  near  it  can  be  brought) 73 

Moon-photographs 85 

Mt.  Choual 17 

Mt.  Copernicus 19 

Mt.  Day 19 

Mt.  Diablo 19 

Mt.  Galileo 19 

Mt.  Hamilton 18 

Mt.  Hipparchus  19 

Mt.  Huyghens 19 

Mt.  Kepler 19 

(Lassen's  Butte)  19 

Mt.  Lewis . 19 

Loma  Prieta 17 

Mt.  Mariposa 19 

(Murphy's  Peak) 19 

Mt.  Oso 19 

(Pacheco  Peaks) 19 

Mt.  Ptolemy 18 

Mt.  Santa  Ana 19 

Mt.  Santa  Isabel 19 

Mt.  Story 19 

M;t.  Tamalpais 19 

Mt.  Thayer 17 

Mt.  Toro 19 

Mt.  Tycho-Brahe 37 

NEWCOMB  (S.) 23,  25,  31,  117 

Observations  at  Mt.  Hamilton 27,  29 


INDEX  131 

Page 
OBSERVATORIES  : — 

Albany 113 

Allegheny 113 

Amherst 113 

Annapolis 113 

Ann  Arbor 113 

Armagh 107 

Athens ..  110 

Berlin 108 

Berne -,.  110 

Birr  Castle 107 

Blinn  Observatory 122 

Bonn 108 

Bordeaux 108 

Bothkamp 109 

Brussels. Ill 

Burckhalter  Observatory 121 

Cadiz \ 110 

California  Observatories 117 

Cambridge  (Eng.) 106 

Cambridge  (Mass.) 114 

Cape  of  Good  Hope 112 

Catania 110 

Chabot  Observatory 119 

Chicago. 114 

Christiania Ill 

Cincinnati 114 

Clinton 115 

Coimbra 110 

Columbia  College 116 

Copenhagen Ill 

Cordoba 112 

Davidson  Observatory 118 

Dorpat Ill 

Dresden 109 

Dublin 107 

DunEcht 107 

Ealing , 107 

Edinburg 107 

Gateshead 107 

Geneva 109 

Georgetown 115 

Glasgow 107 

Glasgow  (Mo.) 115 

Gotha 10U 


132  INDEX 

Page 
OBSERVATORIES  : — Continued. 

Gottingen 109 

Greenwich 106 

Halstead 116 

Hamburg 109 

Hanover 115 

Harvard  College 114 

Helsingfors Ill 

H£reny 109 

Kalocsa 109 

Karlsruhe 109 

Kazan Ill 

Kew 107 

Kieff Ill 

Kiel 109 

Koenigsberg 109 

Leipzig 109 

Leyden Ill 

Lisbon 110 

Liverpool 107 

Lund Ill 

Lyons 108 

Madison 115 

Madras 112 

Madrid HO 

Marseilles 108 

Melbourne 113 

Meudon 108 

Milan 110 

Mills  College  Observatory 124 

Moscow Ill 

Mt.  Etna 110 

Munich 109 

Naples 110 

Naval  Observatory  (U.  S.) 116 

Neuchdtel -  110 

New  Haven 115 

New  York 116 

Nice 108 

Northfield 116 

O'Gyalla 109 

Oxford 106 

Palermo 110 

Paris 108 

Pola 109 

Potsdam 109 


INDEX  133 

Page 
OBSERVATORIES — Continued. 

Princeton '  116 

Pulkowa 110 

Radcliffe 106 

Rio  Janeiro 112 

Rochester 116 

Rome 110 

Santiago 112 

Savilian.... 106 

Stockholm Ill 

Strasburg 109 

Sydney 112 

Tacubaya 112 

Toulouse 108 

University  of  California 122 

University  of  Michigan 113 

University  of  the  Pacific 123 

University  of  Virginia 116 

University  of  Wisconsin 115 

Upsala Ill 

Vienna 109 

Warsaw Ill 

Washburn 115 

Washington 116 

Williams  College 117 

Wilna Ill 

Yale  College 115 

Zurich 110 

Officers  of  the  Lick  Observatory 4 

Paris  Observatory  photographs 90 

PAYNE  (W.  W.) 1  6 

PETERS  (C.  H.  F.) 115 

Photogra phic  Laboratory 37 

Photographic  Star-maps  (proposed) 91 

Photographic  Telescopes 74 

Photographic  Telescopes  of  Dr.  RUTHERFURD 85 

of  Dr.  GOULD 87 

of  Dr.  DRAPER 35,87 

of  Harvard  College  Observatory..  86 

of  Paris  Observatory 90 

of  Lick  Observatory 94 

Photographs  of  Mt.  Hamilton 6 

Photography  (advantages  of) (.)3, 94 

Photography  at  Harvard  College  Observatory 88 

Photography  at  Paris  Observatory 90 

Photography see  Astronomical  Photography 


134  INDEX 

Page 

Photoheliograph 44 

'*        (view  of) 38 

Photometry 82 

PICKERING  (E.  C.) .....86,114 

Plan  of  Buildings 32 

PLUM  (C.  M.) 14 

Powerof  Telescopes 73 

PRITCHETT  (C.  W.)  and  (H.  S.) 115 

Publication-Fund  (needed) 65 

Publications  of  Lick  Observatory 64 

PublicClocks , 103 

Public  Nights  at  Lick  Observatory 7 

Railway  Time  Service 99 

Rain-Gauge  (view  of) 58 

REES  (J.  K.) 116 

Reflecting  Telescopes 69,  71 

Reflectors  and  Refractors 69,  71 

Regents  of  the  University 4 

REPSOLDS... 46,  48 

Reservoirs 39 

Road  to  Mt.  Hamilton  (view  of) 16 

ROBERTS'  Star-Maps 88,  89 

ROGERS  (W.  A.) 48, 114 

RUTHERFURD  (L.  M.) 84,  85,  116 

RUTHERFURD'S  Photographs 87 

SAFFORD  (T.  H.) 117 

San  Anton  Valley 19 

San  Jose  Time-Service 101 

San  Francisco  Time-Balls 103 

San  Francisco  Time-Service 101 

Santa  Clara  County  Builds  the  Road 25 

SCHAEBERLE  (J.  M.) 4,113 

SCHONWALD  (G.) 14 

Seismometers 54 

Shooting  on  the  Reservation 6 

Smith  Creek  Hotel 5,  18 

Solar-eclipse  photographs 86 

Solar-spectrum  photographs -.  86 

SOULE  (F.) 122 

Special  Fund  needed 65 

Spectra  of  the  Sun,  Stars,  Comets,  etc 51,  52 

Spectroscopes 48 

Spectroscopic  observations 63 

Spectrum  Analysis 82 

STACKPOLE  &  Bro 48 


OF  THE 


INDEX 

Page 
Stage  Lines  ....................................  ............................         5 

Standard  Clock  (view  oi)  .............................................        96 

Standard  Time  ............................................................  97,  98 

Star-Maps  by  Photography  ...........................................        83 

Star-Positions  by  Photography  ......................................        84 

Stars  (motion  in  line  of.  sight)  .......................................        52 

STONE  (0.)  ...............................................................  115,  116 

Sun  (photographs  of)  ..................................................        85 

SWIFT  (L.)  ..................................................................      116 

Table  oi  Contents  ........................................................          3 

Telephone  Line  to  Mt.  Hamilton  .................  ................          5 

Telephone  Time-Service  ...............................................      101 

Telescopes  (history  oi)  .................................................        67 

Temperature  at  Mt.  Hamilton  .......................................        27 

Thirty-Six  inch  Telescope  ..........................  see  Great  Telescope 

Time-Balls  ........  .........................................................  99,  103 

Time  (how  determined)  ...............................................        99 

Time-Service  of  the  Lick  Observatory  ............................        99 

Time-Signals  (how  sent)  ..............................................      100 

TODD(D.  P.)  ..............................................................  44,113 

Transit-House  ............................................................        36 

Transit  Instrument  .....................................................        46 

(view  of)  .........................................        49 

Transit  of  Venus  photograph  s  .......................................        86 

TROUVELOT  Drawings  ...................................................        33 

Universal  Instrument  .................................................        46 

UPDEGRAFF  (M.)  .........................................................       115 

Visiting  Astronomers  ..................................................        95 

Visitors  (a  caution  to)  ..................................................          9 

Visitors'  Hours  at  Lick  Observatory  ..............................     6,  7 

Visitors  (information  for)  .............................................          5 

Visitors'  Room  ............................................................          8 

WALDO  (L.)  ................................................................      116 

WALKER  (S.  C.)  ..........................................................      116 

WARNER  &  SWASEY  ..................................................  36,  44,  48 

Water-Supply  ............................................................        39 

WATSON  (J.  C.)  .........................................................  113,  115 

Weather  atMt.  Hamilton  .............................................  27,  30 

WINLOCK  (J.  C.)  .........................................................      114 

Work  of  an  Observatory  ...............................................        59 

Work  of  Astronomers.."  ................................................        98 

YOUNG  (C.  A.)  ...........................................  24,  48,  54,  115,  116 


BEACfi, 

Sf.  JA^^  iMf,   S^n  Jojse, 

HEADQUARTERS  FDR  EASTER^  TOURISTS 


This  house  has  just  been  enlarged  to  more  than  double  its 
former  size,  and  re-furnished  with  all  modern  improvements. 
Kggs,  Milk  and  Butter  fresh  daily  from  ranch  of  the  proprietor 

OFFICE  OF  MT.  HAMILTON  STAGE  COMPANY 

Where  magnificent  four-horse  coaches  leave  the  ST.  JAMKS 
HoTKiy  every  morning  for  the  Lick  Observatory,  over  the  finest 
road  and  through  the  most  magnificent  mountain  scenery  in  the 
world  to  an  elevation  of  nearly  5,000  feet.  A  full  description  of 
which  can  be  found  in  this  Guide  Book. 

Write  or  telegraph  to  the  ST.  JAMKS  HoTKi,  for  rooms  and 
reserved  seats  in  Mt.  Hamilton  Stage  Company's  coach. 


Hotel  Rates,  $2  to  $2.50  per  day 


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SAN  FRANCISCO,  CAL. 

BANCROFT  HISTOR  Y  BUILDING 
(Cars  to  the  door  from  all  R.  R.  Depots) 

The  Popular 

New  Home 

Sewing  Machine 

We  have  recently  moved  into  our  elegant  New  Home,    at 
the  above  address. 

Call  any  time  at  our  New  Home,  and  make  yourself 
completely  at  home.  Our  * 'NEW  HOME"  is  for  universal 
home  use — you  must  have  a  New  Home  at  your  home,  it  makes 
home  a  happy  home;  all  the  people  admire  New  Homes. 
Try  the  New  Home  and  you  will  buy  only  the  New  Home. 
Yours  truly,  always  at  home, 

The  New  Home  Sewing  Machine  Company 

CHAS.  E.  NAYLOR,  Gen'l  Manager 


TURKISH,  RUSSIAN,  ELECTRIC  AND 

(Dedicated 

BATH  HOUSE 


IN  CALIFORNIA 


KOR.     MAI^BS    AND 


Dr.  Loryeas*  New  Hammam 

tfr"*--*-*        «S»>^-'-»^«^-H-»<        «»      "^      •»     ^       «$»       •»     ^ 

218  POST  STREET 

SAN  FRANCISCO 


OPEN    DAY    AND    NIGHT 


Best  attendants  and  appliances  and  patronized 
by  the  Elite. 


Sii?c3le  Ball?, '$1.00  Six  TKKetS»  $5*oa 


HOW  TO  REACH  THE 


CK  OBSERVATORY 


FROM  SAN  FRANCISCO 


TAKE  THE  CARS  OF 


SouTsenn  PACIFIC 


DIVISION) 


ROUXP  TRIP  TICKHXS  (Including  Stage) 


Townsend   Street   Depot  or  Valencia  Street  Station,  S.  F. 

SPHCIAU  NOTICE 

The  mount  Hamilton  Stage  Co.  runs  from  SAN  JOSE,  CAL.,  first-class 
Coaches  in  charge  of  attentive  and  experienced  drivers,  to 

^    LICK    OBSERVATORY   <pv^ 

lyeaving  their  office,  No.  55  North  First  Street,  DAILY,  at  7.30  A.  M. 

Returning,  arrive  same  day  in  time  to  connect  with  the  p.  M.  trains  for 
San  Francisco  and  Monterey. 

Open  coaches,  with  sun-shades,  insure  comfort  and  afford  opportunities 
for  viewing  the  beautiful  scenery.  The  time  at  the  summit  of  the  mountain 
is  from  two  to  three  hours,  and  by  special  arrangement  passengers  will 
receive  attention  and  admission  to  the  finest  observatory  in  the  world. 

Passengers  called  for  at  all  the  principal  hotels. 

TIOU-CTQ^     Can  be  obtained  at  any  of  the  S.  P.  Co's  Ticket 
I  lUKt  I  V\  Offices  in  San  Francisco. 


TOURISTS  ! 


in  1  1  in  I'linii  in  1  1  1  ii 


WILL  BE  CALLED  FOR  AND  DELIVERED  BY 


PRINCIPAL  OFFICE: 


.  .66 


Thirteenth  Street,        between  Folsom  and  Howard 


All   ordinary   Mending,  Sewing  on  of   Buttons,    etc.,  free   of   Charge. 
Orders  may  be  left  at  Offices  or  Laundry,  or  a  Postal  card, 
will  receive  prompt  attention. 


REDUCE!)    PRICES 


Shirts,  without  collars lOc.  each 

Nightshirts lOc. 

Undershirts lOc. 

Drawers lOc. 

Vests  and  Coats 15c. 

Plain  Chemise lOc. 

"     Night  Dresses 15c. 

11     Skirts 15c. 

'     Dresses • 25c. 

BedSpreads 10to25c. 

Table  Cloths  [ordinarysizej-lOc. 

Sheet 50c.  per  doz.  or  5c. 

Pillow  Slips, 

Starched..50c.          "         5c. 


Pillow  Slips,  not  Starched  f 

Towels At  the 

Handkerchiefs J    rate  of 

Napkins f     25c. 

Hose per  doz. 

Collars I 

Cape  Collars 35c.  per  doz. 

Cuffs 50c.  per  doz.  or  5c.  per  pair 

Blankets 50c.  per  pair 

Children's  plain  starched 

gieces $1  per  doz. 
Iren's  plain  pieces,  not 
starched  50c.  per  doz.  or  5c.  each 
SINGLE  SMALL  PIECES,  5c.    " 


THESE  PRICES  apply  only  to  plain  pieces.    Goods  requiring  extra 
time  and  labor  will  be  charged  accordingly. 


Open  from  7  A.  M.  to  9  P.  M.    Saturdays,  10  P.  M. 


Office:  <;or.  ist  ai?d  /TVssioi?       U/orl^s:  potn?ro 


Op 


tat  Donje  and  Elevating  FIooi1 

FOR  THE  LICK  OBSERVATORY 


ONLY  IRON  *»•  STEEL  SHIP  BUILDERS 

ON  THE  PACIFIC  COAST 


]>1OGU  BO  111  DI  HO  FOR  THE  U.  S.  flHVY 

The  Cruisers  "Charleston"  and  "San  Francisco" 


HYDRAULIC  DRY  DOCK 

45  O    Keet   Long  66    Keet  "Wide 


DESIONKRS     AND     BUILDERS 

OF  ALL-  DESCRIPTIONS  OF 


UOF  THE 
NIVERSITY 


TOURISTS ! 


R  glance  at  the  following  list  mill  shoca 
that  all  PliERSU^H  and  TOURIST  RESORTS 
of  importance  in  California  are  located  di>* 
feetly  on  the  lines  of  the 


acific      oiripaiiy 


Yosemite    Valley;    Tahoe   and   Donner  Lakes;    The  Geysers; 

Big  Trees;  Mts.  Shasta,  Hamilton  and  Diablo;  McCloud 

and  Pitt  Rivers  ;  Napa  Soda,  Paraiso,  ^Etna  and 

Paso  Robles  Springs;  Monterey,  Hotel  del 

Monte,    Pacific    Grove,    Santa  Cruz, 

Santa    Barbara,   Long   Beach, 

Santa  Monica,  Los   An- 

geles, Sierra  Madre 

Villa,  Riverside, 

San  Jose, 

Etc. 

Excursions    a*e    imn    duping    Toutnst    Season   to 
prominent  points  at  Special  Reduced  Rates. 

Pullman  Palace  Sleeping  Cars  and  Elegant  Passenger 
Coaches. 

I>AII.V     KXPRHSS    TRAILS 


THROUGH  AND   LOCAL  TICKET  OFFICES  I 

613  MARKET  STREET  B13 

OAKLAND  FERRY  and  BALDWIN  HOTEL  ROTUNDA 

SAN   FRANCISCO 


THE  BANCROFT  COMPANY 

T-T  TQ^TAr^T*>"V    T~£T  TT  T    T^TTVIT^ 
l~±lC>  JL  LJiX.  Y     JtD  O  lJ_y  LJ  L  IN,  VJT 

721  MARKET  STREET       -i-       SAN  FRANGISGQ 

PIANO     DEPARTMENT 

A.  M.  BENHAM,  Manager 

Pacific  Coast  Agents  for  the  following  First-class  Instruments 

(  HENRY  F,  MILLER  &  SONS 

The  First  Choice  of  the  Great  Pianists 

BEHNING  &  SON 

Endorsed  by  Eminent  Musicians  of  this  and  other 
Countries 

STULTZ  &  BAUER 

Beautiful  in  Tone  and  Action,  and  Durable 

.  KURTZMANN  &  GO. 

t_  Elegant  Cases,  Medium  Price,  Fully  Warranted 

STANDARD  REED  PIPE  1 

Guaranteed  to  Produce  the  Tone  and  Effect  of  Pipe 
Organs  of  double  the  price 

FARRAND  &  YOTEY 

Contain  more  Improvements  than  any  other  Reed 
Instrument 

WILGOX  &  WHITE 

Largest  Capital,  Largest  Factory,  Greatest  Variety 

of  Styles  j 

Our  Prices  are  the  lowest  consistent  with  quality  and  durability;  our  terms 

the  most  liberal;  our  assortment  the  largest,  and  the  established 

reputation  of  the  house  makes  our  guarantee  an 

absolute  protection  to  customers 

SAN  JOSE  BRANCH,  40  WEST  SANTA  GLARA  ST. 

In  Charge  of  MRS.  I*.  A.  RODERICK 


14  DAY  USE 

RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 

LOAN  DEPT. 

This  book  is  due  on  the  last  date  stamped  below,  or 

on  the  date  to  which  renewed. 
Renewed  books  are  subject  to  immediate  recall. 


7AprS  - 

REC'D  L 

D 

-OiJ- 


MJG 1 8 


vft  wfe  i 


91QO/ 
„-.    -    ^^ 


LD  21A-50m-3,'62 
(C7097slO)476B 


General  Library 

University  of  California 

Berkeley 


17124 


